Fundamentals of Modern Belarusian
By Chris Marchant
<www.vitba.org>

			Introduction		........................................................................	ii
Chapter 1		Spelling Rules	....................................................................................	1
Chapter 2		Noun Declension	........................................................................	5
Chapter 3		Additional Points on Noun Declension		........................	17
Chapter 4		Irregular Plurals	........................................................................	21
Chapter 5		Adjective Declension	........................................................................	23
Chapter 6		Comparative and Superlative Adjective	....................................	27
Chapter 7		Personal Pronouns		............................................................	31
Chapter 8		Possessive and Demonstrative Pronouns	....................................	33
Chapter 9		Interrogative and Relative Pronouns	................................................	37
Chapter 10		Numerals	....................................................................................	39
Chapter 11		1st Conjugation Verbs	........................................................................	45
Chapter 12		2nd Conjugation Verbs	........................................................................	49
Chapter 13		Miscellaneous Verbs	........................................................................	51
Chapter 14		Reflexive Verbs	........................................................................	53
Chapter 15		Past Tenses	....................................................................................	55
Chapter 16		Present and Future Tenses	............................................................	57
Chapter 17		The Imperative	........................................................................	59
Chapter 18		Verbs of Motion	........................................................................	63
Chapter 19		Verbal Prefixes	........................................................................	67
Chapter 20		Gerunds and Participles	............................................................	71
Chapter 21		The Nominative Case	........................................................................	73
Chapter 22		The Accusative Case	........................................................................	75
Chapter 23		The Genitive Case	........................................................................	79
Chapter 24		The Dative Case	........................................................................	83
Chapter 25		The Instrumental Case	............................................................	85
Chapter 26		The Prepositional Case	............................................................	87
Chapter 27		Prepositional Oddities		............................................................	89
Chapter 28		Conditional Sentences	............................................................	91
Chapter 29		Adverbs	...................................................................................		93
Chapter 30		Conjunctions and Particles	............................................................	97
			GNU Free Documentation License	................................................	101

	While living in Lithuania, Belarus, and Russia, I learned to speak Russian, which in those days was still the lingua franca of CIS countries. During the first decade after the collapse of the USSR, Russian was still spoken by the majority of adults in the CIS, and it served me well during my travels. To this day, Russian remains the dominant language in Belarus. Nevertheless, Belarusian still holds a prominent position in Belarusian society as a symbol of Belarusian identity and nationalism. In those days, many government documents were printed only in Belarusian and most street signs were in Belarusian. Every schoolchild is required to learn the language, and almost all Belarusians can speak it at least to some extent. A knowledge of Belarusian is valuable to anyone who spends any amount of time in Belarus.
	This book was written with the assumption that the reader is already moderately familiar with either Russian or Ukrainian. Little explanation is given of noun gender and cases, or verb aspect and tenses. The reader should consult either a Russian or Ukrainian grammar for more details on these principles. I have attempted, in this book, to thoroughly describe those parts of Belarusian grammar that differ from Russian or Ukrainian.
	There is great variation in the Belarusian language from region to region, and any attempt to make an authoritative description of the Belarusian language will be plagued by this fact. I have strived to make this work as consistent as possible with the standard Belarusian used in most literature. To this end, I have set forth the most common declensions, conjugations, and vocabulary.

To my comrades of the Vitebskaya Banda

Copyright (c) 2004 Christian Cardell Marchant.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".
Chapter 1: Spelling Rules

	It is important to understand Belarusian spelling, which can be quite complex and more difficult than Russian. Most of the complexity of Belarusian morphology is a result of spelling rules. This problem is aggravated by the competition between two existing orthographies, or sets of spelling rules, called Tarashkevitsa and Narkamouka. Tarashkevitsa is based on Biełaruskaja Hramatyka dla Škoł, published by Branisłaŭ Taraškiéwič in 1918. It was the first comprehensive description of Belarusian and in some ways is more phonetically descriptive. Narkamaŭka was instituted by the Counsel of National Commissars of the BSSR in 1933 and is the basis of the state-sanction standard most broadly used today. I will refer to them simply as the “Classical” and “Modern” orthographies. I have chosen to use the Modern orthography throughout this work. I have noted in this chapter those ways in which the two differ.

1.1	Vowels

Belarusian has 10 letters representing vowel sounds. They can be divided into two categories, non-iotized vowels and their iotized counterparts. The letters in the second column represent the same sounds as the vowels in the first, but with an initial “y” sound. When a consonant precedes a vowel of the second column, it is palatized.

		а		я
		о		ё
		у		ю
		ы		і
		э		е

1.2	Invariably Non-palatized Consonants

The letters д, ж, р, т, ч, and ш are never palatized, they cannot be followed by any letter from the second column. In a situation where a word’s morphology would normally place an iotized vowel after a д or a т, those consonants are changed to дз or ц respectively. In a situation where an iotized vowel would normally follow a ж, р, ч, or ш, that vowel is changed to its non-iotized counterpart. The consonants г, к, х are never followed by the letter ы. In a situation where an ы would normally occur, it is changed to an і if following one of these three letters.

бяда			misery			у бядзе		in misery 
гара			mountain		на гары		on the mountain 
мяжа			boundary		на мяжы		on the boundary 
пірог			pastry			пірагі			pastries
растуць		they grow		расце			it grows

1.3	Stress and the vowels о, э, and ё

	The letters о, э, and ё normally only exist when stressed. When unstressed, the letters о and э change to а. In Belarusian this phenomenon is called аканне. The letter ё usually changes to a е, but sometimes it also changes to a я in a phenomenon kalled яканне. See Section 1.4 for more details on spelling rules that effect е. Care must be taken when stress shifts to a different syllable.

	Sing.			Pl.
	вол			валы			ox
	сасна			сосны			pine tree
	стол			сталы			table

There are exceptions, all of which are loan words.

	радыё			radio
	тэлевізар		television
	эканоміка		economy

1.4	Conversion of е to other vowels

Any е or ё, which immediately precedes the accent, is changed to я.
 
адзець			to dress(per.)		адзяваць		to dress(imp.)
вецер			wind			вятры			winds

Exceptions to this included many loan words from other languages, as well as many numerals, which are described in Section 10.7.

	бензін			gasoline 
сезон			season
	электрон		electron
							
1.5	Conversion of о to ы

In words with the accent on the last syllable, it is common for a preceding syllable –ро- to change to –ры-.

	бровы			eyebrows		брыво			eyebrow
	гром			thunder		грымець		to rumble
	кроў			blood			крыві			of blood

1.6	The apostrophe

In Belarusian, this symbol fills the function of the Russian letter ъ. It only occurs following a consonant, and preceding an iotized vowel. Having no sound of its own, its function is to separate the sound of the vowel following it from the consonant preceding it. This is either to prevent the consonant from being palatized, or to conform to spelling rules because the preceding consonant is invariably non-palatized.

	аб'явіць		to declare 
п'яны			intoxicated
	сур'ёзны		serious

1.7		Assimilation

Belarusian, like Russian, de-voices its consonants. Voiced consonants followed by unvoiced consonants are pronounced as unvoiced. Unvoiced consonants followed by voiced consonants are pronounced voiced. Consonants at the end of words are pronounced as unvoiced.
	Belarusian has assimilation with respect to palatization. If a consonant is palatized, an immediately preceding consonant is also palatized, provided it is one of the eligible consonants. Only the consonants дз, з, л, н, с, and ц are eligible to be palatized in this way. The Classical orthography represents this palatization by placing a ь between the two palatized consonants. For the purposes of both assimilation and pronunciation, the letter combination дз is treated as a single letter. The consonants б, в, м, and ф are not palatized this way, but if they are followed by an iotized vowel, consonants that precede one of these letters can be palatized by assimilation. The invariably non-palatized consonants cannot be palatized, and will prevent those consonants preceding them from being palatized by assimilation. See Section 1.2 for more on invariably non-palatized consonants. The pronunciation of a word does not change depending on which orthography is used to write it. Both the Modern and the Classical forms of a word are pronounced exactly the same.

	Modern		Classical
	дзверы		дзьверы		door
	ёсць			ёсьць			there is
	песня			песьня			song

1.8		Rules for в, у, and ў

If the letter у occurs after a vowel, even if the vowel ends the previous word, it is written as an ў. This letter is pronounced like the English ‘w’.

Пайшла ў хлеў.				She went into the shed.
Стаіць у хляве.				She is standing in the shed.
Гэты хлеб увесь.				This is all the bread.
Гэта ўсё, што ёсць.				That’s all there is.
Увайшлі яны ў хату.				They went into the house.
Я ўвайшоў у хату.				I went into the house.

	The letter в cannot occur, unless it is immediately followed by a vowel, otherwise, it must change to a ў. The letter ў can precede iotized vowels, but is changed to a в if it precedes a non-iotized vowel. When preceding an iotized vowel, it is not always clear whether the consonant should be a в or an ў.

	любоў			love			любоўю		with love 
справа			affair			спраў			of the affairs
	хлеў			shed			за хлявом		behind the shed
	хлеў			shed			у хляве		in the shed

	Belarusian words cannot normally begin with an о. Many words which would otherwise begin with an о instead have the letter в added to the beginning. If the о changes to an а due to an accent shift, the initial в often drops off.

	возера			lake			азёры			lakes
	вокны			windows		акно			window

	There are exceptions to this rule, but they are all loan words.

	одум			profound thought	ордэн			ceremonial order
	опера			opera			ордер			warrant
	орган			organ

Chapter 2: Noun Declension
 
	Because of the complex nature of Belarusian spelling rules, I have attempted to give exhaustive examples of the different declensions. Most of the declensions are slight variations of one of the few basic declensions, differing only because of the manifestation of spelling rules. It should be noted that it is extremely common for a noun with accented endings in the singular to have unaccented endings in the plural, and vice-versa. Careful attention must also be paid to the points raised in Chapter 3.

2.1		Masculine nouns ending in a non-palatized consonant

Most masculine nouns with accented endings decline like стол, table.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		стол			сталы		
Acc.		стол			сталы
Gen.		стала			сталоў
Dat.		сталу			сталам
Instr.		сталом		сталамі
Prep.		на стале		на сталах

	вугал			corner
	лоб			forehead	

Most masculine nouns with unaccented endings decline like план, plan.

Nom.		план			планы		
Acc.		план			планы
Gen.		плана			планаў
Dat.		плану			планам
Instr.		планам		планамі
Prep.		у плане		у планах

	аўтобус		bus
	клас			class

Masculine nouns with accented endings in –д or –т decline like суд, judgment. The final consonant becomes either ц or дз for the prepositional singular.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		суд			суды		
Acc.		суд			суды
Gen.		суда			судоў
Dat.		суду			судам
Instr.		судом			судамі
Prep.		на судзе		на судах

	куст			bush
	ліст			leaf 

Masculine nouns with accented endings in –г, -к, or –х decline like пірог, pastry.

Nom.		пірог			пірагі		
Acc.		пірог			пірагі
Gen.		пірага			пірагоў
Dat.		пірагу			пірагам
Instr.		пірагом		пірагамі
Prep.		у пірагу		у пірагах

	бок			side
	мех			sack

Masculine nouns with unaccented endings in –г, -к, or –х decline like гук, sound.

Nom.		гук			гукі		
Acc.		гук			гукі
Gen.		гуку			гукаў
Dat.		гуку			гукам
Instr.		гукам			гукамі
Prep.		у гуку			у гуках

	луг			meadow
	страх			fear

Masculine nouns with unaccented endings in –д or –т decline like погляд, outlook. This declension is just like for план except the final consonant becomes ц or дз for the prepositional singular.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		погляд			погляды		
Acc.		погляд			погляды
Gen.		погляду		поглядаў
Dat.		погляду		поглядам
Instr.		поглядам		поглядамі
Prep.		у поглядзе		у поглядах

	асфальт		asphalt

Masculine nouns with accented endings in –ж, -р, -ц, -ч, or –ш decline like двор, yard.

Nom.		двор			двары		
Acc.		двор			двары
Gen.		двара			двароў
Dat.		двару			дварам
Instr.		дваром		дварамі
Prep.		на двары		на дварах

	нож			knife
	канец			end
	мяч			ball
	кош			basket

Masculine nouns with unaccented endings in –ж, -р, -ц, -ч, or –ш decline like катэдж, cottage.

Nom.		катэдж		катэджы
Acc.		катэдж		катэджы
Gen.		катэджа		катэджаў
Dat.		катэджу		катэджам
Instr.		катэджам		катэджамі
Prep.		у катэджы		у катэджах

	ровар			bicycle
	харч			food
	палец			finger
аркуш			sheet of paper

2.2		Masculine nouns ending in –ь or -й

Most nouns of this group with accented endings decline like пень, stump.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		пень			пні
Acc.		пень			пні
Gen.		пня			пнёў
Dat.		пню			пням
Instr.		пнём			пнямі
Prep.		на пні			на пнях

	агонь			fire
	ручай			stream

Nouns of this group with unaccented endings decline like партфель, briefcase.

Nom.		партфель		партфелі
Acc.		партфель		партфелі
Gen.		партфеля		партфеляў
Dat.		партфелю		партфелям
Instr.		партфелем		партфелямі
Prep.		у партфелі		у партфелях

	аўтамабіль		automobile
	гай			grove

2.3		Neuter nouns ending in –о or -а

Most neuter nouns ending in -о decline like крыло, wing.

Nom.		крыло			крылы
Acc.		крыло			крылы
Gen.		крыла			крылаў
Dat.		крылу			крылам
Instr.		крылом		крыламі
Prep.		крыле			крылах

	акно			window
	пісьмо			letter

Most neuter nouns ending in -а decline like кола, wheel.
		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		кола			колы
Acc.		кола			колы
Gen.		кола			колаў
Dat.		колу			колам
Instr.		колам			коламі
Prep.		на коле		на колах

	дрэва			tree

Neuter nouns ending with д or т as the final consonant decline like крыло or кола, except the final consonant becomes ц or дз respectively for the prepositional singular. 
 
	Nom.			Prep.
	гняздо			гняздзе		nest
жыта			жыце			rye
	лета			леце			summer

Neuter nouns ending in –га, -ка, or –ха decline like воблака, cloud.

Nom.		воблака		воблакі
Acc.		воблака		воблакі
Gen.		воблака		воблакаў
Dat.		воблаку		воблакам
Instr.		воблакам		воблакамі
Prep.		на воблаку		на воблаках

рэха			echo

Neuter nouns ending in –жо, -ро, -цо, -чо, or –шо decline like вядро, bucket.

Nom.		вядро			вёдры
Acc.		вядро			вёдры 
Gen.		вядра			вёдраў
Dat.		вядру			вёдрам
Instr.		вядром		вёдрамі
Prep.		на вядры		на вёдрах

	ружжо			gun
	яйцо			egg
	плячо			shoulder

Neuter nouns ending in –жа, -ра, -ца, -ча, or –ша decline like акенца, small window.

	Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		акенца			акенцы
Acc.		акенца			акенцы
Gen.		акенца			акенцаў
Dat.		акенцу			акенцам
Instr.		акенцам		акенцамі
Prep.		на акенцы		на акенцах

	мора			sea
	аблічча		countenance
	падстрэшша		eaves

2.4		Neuter nouns ending in –ё or -е 

Neuter nouns ending in –ё decline like жыццё, life.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		жыццё			жыцці
Acc.		жыццё			жыцці
Gen.		жыцця			жыццяў
Dat.		жыццю		жыццям
Instr.		жыццём		жыццямі
Prep.		на жыцці		на жыццях

	галлё			piece of firewood
пачуццё		sense

Neuter nouns ending in –е decline like пакаленне, generation.

Nom.		пакаленне		пакалення
Acc.		пакаленне		пакалення
Gen.		пакалення		пакаленняў
Dat.		пакаленню		пакаленням
Instr.		пакаленнем		пакаленнямі
Prep.		у пакаленні		у пакаленнях

выключэнне		exception

2.5		Neuter nouns ending in –мя 

There are seven nouns of this group. They decline like стрэмя, stirrup. Many of these nouns have no plural form.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		стрэмя			страмёны
Acc.		стрэмя			страмёны
Gen.		стрэмя			страмёнаў
Dat.		стрэмю		страмёнам
Instr.		стрэмем		страмёнамі
Prep.		аб стрэмі		аб страмёнах

	бярэмя		armful
	вымя			udder	
	племя			tribe
полымя		flame
	семя			seed
	цемя			top of head

2.6		Neuter nouns ending in –я

Nouns of this type decline like цяля, calf. All are animate and represent animal young.

Nom.		цяля			цяляты
Acc.		цяля			цялят
Gen.		цяляці			цялят
Dat.		цяляці			цялятах
Instr.		цялём			цялятамі
Prep.		аб цяляці		аб цялятах

	парася			piglet
	жарабя		foal

2.7		Feminine nouns ending in –а

Most nouns of this group with accented endings decline like сцяна, wall.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		сцяна			сцены
Acc.		сцяну			сцены
Gen.		сцяны			сцен
Dat.		сцяне			сценам
Instr.		сцяной		сценамі
Prep.		на сцяне		на сценах
	
	галава			head 
сасна			pine tree

Most nouns of this group with unaccented endings decline like галіна, branch.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		галіна			галіны
Acc.		галіну			галіны
Gen.		галіны			галін
Dat.		галіне			галінам
Instr.		галінай		галінамі
Prep.		на галіне		на галінах
	
	бульба			potato
крама			store

Nouns of this group with д or т as the final consonant decline like сцяна or галіна, except the final consonant becomes ц or дз respectively for the prepositional singular. 

	Nom. Sing.		Dat. & Prep.
	пліта			пліце			slab
	хата			хаце			home
	вада			вадзе			water
	бяседа			бяседзе		discussion	

Nouns of this group with the accented endings –га, –ка, or –ха decline like нага, leg. The ending changes to -зе, -цэ, or -се respectively, for the prepositional and dative singular.

Nom.		нага			ногі
Acc.		нагу			ногі
Gen.		нагі			ног
Dat.		назе			нагам
Instr.		нагой			нагамі
Prep.		на назе		на нагах

	Nom.			Prep. & Dat.	
	страха			страсе			roof 
рука			руцэ			arm

Nouns of this group with the unaccented endings –га, –ка, or –ха decline like дарога, road. The ending changes to -зе, -цы, or -се respectively, for the prepositional and dative singular.

Nom.		дарога			дарогі
Acc.		дарогу			дарогі
Gen.		дарогі			дарог
Dat.		дарозе		дарогах
Instr.		дарогай		дарогамі
Prep.		на дарозе		на дарогах

	Nom.			Prep. & Dat.
	скруха			скрусе			sadness
зорка			зорцы			star

Nouns of this group with the accented endings –жа, -ра, -ча, -ца or –ша decline like мяжа, boundary.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		мяжа			межы
Acc.		мяжу			межы
Gen.		мяжы			межаў
Dat.		мяжы			межам
Instr.		мяжой			межамі
Prep.		на мяжы		на межах
	
	гара			mountain
	каланча		observation tower	
	душа			soul

Nouns of this group with the unaccented endings –жа, -ра, -ча, -ца or –ша decline like мара, dream.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		мара			мары
Acc.		мару			мары
Gen.		мары			мараў
Dat.		мары			марам
Instr.		марай			марамі
Prep.		на мары		на марах
	
	вежа			spire
	раніца			morning
	ануча			rag
	каша			porridge

2.8		Feminine nouns ending in –я

Nouns of this group with accented endings decline like зямля, land.

Nom.		зямля			землі
Acc.		зямлю			землі
Gen.		зямлі			земляў
Dat.		зямлі			землям
Instr.		зямлёй		землямі
Prep.		на зямлі		на землях
	
сям'я			family

Nouns of this group with unaccented endings decline like лінія, line.

Nom.		лінія			лініі
Acc.		лінію			лініі
Gen.		лініі			лініяў
Dat.		лініі			лініям
Instr.		лініяй			лініямі
Prep.		на лініі			на лініях
	
куля			bullet 
	партыя		party

2.9		Feminine nouns ending in –ь or consonant

	There are a couple of points that must be noted for these nouns. If the final consonant is preceded by a vowel, it is doubled in the instrumental singular. If the genitive plural ending is accented, it will be –ей or –эй, otherwise it will be –аў or –яў. 

Nouns of this group with the ending –ь decline like сувязь, connection.

		Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		сувязь			сувязі
Acc.		сувязь			сувязі
Gen.		сувязі			сувязяў
Dat.		сувязі			сувязям
Instr.		сувяззю		сувязямі
Prep.		на сувязі		на сувязях
	
радасць		joy
соль			salt

Nouns of this group with the endings –ж, -р, -ч, or -ш decline like ноч, night.

Nom.		ноч			ночы
Acc.		ноч			ночы
Gen.		ночы			начэй
Dat.		ночы			начам
Instr.		ноччу			начамі
Prep.		у ночы			у начах
	
вупраж		bridled horse 
	мыш			mouse

Chapter 3: Additional Points on Noun Declension
 
3.1		Accusative form of animate nouns

	The accusative form of plural animate nouns is identical the genitive, not the nominative case. Adjectives describing these nouns take the genitive ending.

Пастух збірае сваіх кароў.				The herdsman gathers his cows.
Туды дзяўчат пасылалі.				That’s where we sent the girls.
Прасіў у яго, не за сябе, за двух маленькіх		I asked him, not for myself, but for two little kids.
дзетак.					 

	The accusative case is identical to the genitive for singular masculine animate nouns as well. Corresponding adjectives take the genitive ending.
	
Яна прыдбае новага мужа.				She will get a new husband.
Ён перажываў за старэйшага брата.		He was worried about his older brother.
Паважанага пешахода ігнаруюць і			The respected pedestrian is ignored and
	прыгнятаюць пошлыя вадзіцелі.			oppressed by common drivers.

3.2		Masculine genitive singular endings а/я versus у/ю

	There are two groups of masculine nouns. One of these groups has genitive singular endings of а and я, the other group has genitive singular endings of у, and ю. There is no easy way to tell to which group any given noun belongs.

Nouns with the genitive singular endings -а or –я are typically words that can be described in English with the word “many.” These nouns are often concrete, countable objects.

•	Nouns denoting people, animals, and body parts
•	Units of measurement and currency
•	Geographical concepts

брата			of the brother		малатка		of the hammer
грама			of the gram		пальца		of the finger
дня			of the day		перашыйка		of the isthmus
кантынэнта		of the continent	рубля			of the ruble
каня			of the horse		чалавека		of the person

Nouns with the genitive singular endings –у or –ю are typically words that are used in the partitive sense. In other words, some portion of a whole is implied. Typically, such words represent more abstract ideas. They can usually be described in English with the word “much.” If a word in English cannot have an article like “the” applied to it, it will have the –у or -ю genitive ending in Belarusian.

•	Nouns that denote a group, gathering, or collection of other things
•	Natural phenomena, characteristics, actions, and spatial directions
•	Emotions, senses, and abstract concepts
•	Substances and other nouns that can be described in English by the word “much”

выгляду		of the glance		роду			of the type
дажджу		of rain			сну			of sleep
жалю			of pity			страху			of fear	
колеру			of color 		усходу			of the east
набору		of the collection	холаду			of the cold
натоўпу		of the crowd		цукру			of sugar

3.3		Genitive plural endings

It is often very difficult to predict the genitive plural endings of nouns. The genitive plural form must be memorized for every feminine noun, and for masculine nouns ending in –ь.

Feminine nouns ending in –а or -я are the most problematic.

Nom. Sing.	Gen. Pl.				Nom. Sing.	Gen. Pl.
вежа		вежаў		of the spires 		зямля		земляў	of the lands
галава		галоў		of the heads		крама		крамаў	of the shops
галіна		галін		of the branches 	лінія		ліній		of the lines
зорка		зорак		of the stars 		сям'я		сем'яў		of the families

Masculine nouns ending in –ь also have this issue.

госць		гасцей		of the guests 		локаць		локцяў		of the elbows
конь		коней 		of the horses		пень		пнёў		of the stumps

Some nouns can have either ending.

мяжа		меж or межаў			of the boundaries
сасна		сосен or соснаў		of the pine-trees
хата		хат or хатаў			of the cottages

3.4		Irregular prepositional endings

Many maculine and neuter nouns with unaccented endings whose final consonant г or х, have irregular prepositional singular endings. The final consonant morphs into з or с respectively.

бераг		на беразе		on the shore
верх		на версе		on top
кажух		у кажусе*		in the leather jacket
луг		на лузе		in the field
начлег		на начлезе		in the lodgings
парог		на парозе		on the threshold
снег		на снезе		on the snow
стог		на стозе		on the haystack

*The form у кажуху is equally common.

	The following masculine and neuter nouns have irregular prepositional forms.

	брат		аб брату		about the brother
	горб		на гарбу		on the hump
	меч		на мячы		on the sword
	пост		на пасту		at the watch-post
	ход		на хаду		in motion
	гняздо		у гняздзе		in the nest
	малако	у малацэ		in milk
	рэха		у рэсе			in the echo

3.5		Feminine Instrumental Ending Variation

There exists a variation of the instrumental ending for feminine nouns ending in –а or –я. This alternate ending is created by replacing the final -й with a -ю. This variation is common, but is non-standard and should be avoided by the non-native speaker. This variation extends to adjectives and pronouns as well.

Бабуля толькі галавою паківала.			The old lady just shook her head.
Я пайду з табой разам.				I will go together with you.
З пэўнаю перасцярогай ў душы, Бураў		With definite caution in his soul, Burau crossed
	пераступіў і другі парог.				the second doorway also.

3.6		Gender and declension disagreement

	Masculine animate nouns ending in –а or –я do not decline like other masculine nouns. If the accent falls on the ending, the word declines exactly as though it were feminine. If the accent falls on the stem, the word has feminine endings for the nominative, accusative, and genitive singular cases, but has masculine endings for all remaining cases. Note the examples of бацька, father, and тата, dad.

		Sing.			Pl.			Sing.			Pl.
Nom.		бацька			бацькі			тата			таты
Acc.		бацьку			бацькоў		тату			татаў
Gen.		бацькі			бацькоў		таты			татаў
Dat.		бацьку			бацькам		тату			татам
Instr.		бацькам		бацькамі		татам			татамі
Prep.		аб бацьку		аб бацьках		аб таце		татах

	сабака			dog
	слуга			servant
	суддзя			judge

3.7		Declension misfits

Some nouns do not fit well in the normal declension patterns. These include the neuter noun дзіця, child, and the feminine nouns любоў, love, and кроў, blood.

Nom.		дзіця			дзеці			любоў			кроў
Acc.		дзіця			дзяцей		любоў			кроў
Gen.		дзіцяці			дзяцей		любові		крыві
Dat.		дзіцяці			дзецям		любові		крыві
Instr.		дзіцём			дзецьмі		любоўю		крывёй
Prep.		аб дзіцяці		аб дзецях		аб любові		у крыві

	There are many nouns, mostly foreign words, which do not decline. They have the same form, regardless of case or number.

	маці			mother
	пані			Mrs.

Chapter 4: Irregular Plurals
 
4.1		Words with no plural form

	Many words have only a singular form. Most of these words have no plural in English either. Included are things like substances, proper nouns, and ideas.

	бульба			potato			сонца			sun
	вецер			wind			спакой			stillness
	ліха			evil			сярэдзіна		middle

	Most neuter nouns ending in –мя have no plural form.

	бярэмя		armful			семя			seed
	вымя			udder			цемя			top of head
	полымя		flame

4.2		Words with no singular form

	Many words have only a plural form.

	абцугі			pincers			каноплі		hemp
	акуляры		eyeglasses		кпіны			laughter
	арэлі			child’s swing		крупы			porridge
	выбары		election		людзі			people
	грошы			money			нетры			depths
	грудзі			chest			паводзіны		behavior
	джунглі		jungle			прысмакі		hors d’oeuvres
	дзверы		door			сані			sled
	дровы			firewood		суткі			twenty-four hours
	забабоны		superstition		шахматы		chess
	зносіны		relations		штаны			pants
	
4.3		Irregular plurals

	The plural forms of these words have different stems than the singular forms.

Masc.
	Sing.			Pl.			Gen. Pl.
	пан			панове		паноў			gentleman
	сусед			суседзі		суседзяў		neighbor
	чорт			чэрці			чарцей		devil

Neut.
	вока			вочы			вачэй			eye
	вуха			вушы			вушэй			ear
	зерне			зярняты		зярнят			grain
	калена			калені			каленяў		knee
	неба			нябёсы		нябёсаў		sky/heaven

Fem.
	дзяўчына		дзяўчаты		дзяўчат		girl
	курыца		куры			курэй			chicken

4.4		Nouns ending in -ін

	These animate nouns denote types of people. Other than the nominative plural ending, the rest of the plural endings are the same as for other nouns. The genitive plural ending is –аў and is unaccented.

	Masc.			Fem.						Pl.
	гараджанін		гараджанка		гараджане		townsperson
	грамадзянін		грамадзянка		грамадзяне		citizen
	мешчанін		мяшчанка		мяшчане		aristocrat
	палачанін		палачанка		палачане		courtier
	селянін		сялянка		сяляне			villager
	славянін		славянка		славяне		slav
	хрысціянін		хрысціянка		хрысціяне		christian

	татарын		татарка		татары			tatar

Chapter 5: Adjective Declension

	Adjectives generally match the gender and case of the noun they describe. As mentioned in Section 3.1, the accusative case of animate masculine nouns and plural nouns is identical to the genitive case. Consistent with this, adjectives describing these nouns also have accusative endings identical with the genitive case.
 
5.1		Non-palatized stem adjectives

	These adjectives with accented endings decline like малады, young.

		Masc.			Neut.			Fem.			Pl.
Nom.		малады		маладое		маладая		маладыя
Acc.		малады (-ога)		маладое		маладую		маладыя (-ых)
Gen.		маладога		маладога		маладой		маладых
Dat.		маладому		маладому		маладой		маладым
Instr.		маладым		маладым		маладой		маладымі
Prep.		аб маладым		аб маладым		аб маладой		аб маладых

	These adjectives with unaccented endings decline like чырвоны, red.

Nom.		чырвоны		чырвонае		чырвоная		чырвоныя
Acc.		чырвоны (-ага)	чырвонае		чырвоную		чырвоныя (-ых)
Gen.		чырвонага		чырвонага		чырвонай		чырвоных
Dat.		чырвонаму		чырвонаму		чырвонай		чырвоным
Instr.		чырвоным		чырвоным		чырвонай		чырвонымі
Prep.		аб чырвоным		аб чырвоным		аб чырвонай		аб чырвоных

	Adjectives with accented endings of –гі, -кі, or –хі decline like другі, second.

Nom.		другі			другое			другая			другія
Acc.		другі (-ога)		другое			другую		другія (-іх)
Gen.		другога		другога		другой			другіх
Dat.		другому		другому		другой			другім
Instr.		другім			другім			другой			другімі
Prep.		аб другім		аб другім		аб другой		аб другіх

	Adjectives, with unaccented endings of –гі, -кі, or –хі, decline like хуткі, fast.

Nom.		хуткі			хуткае			хуткая			хуткія
Acc.		хуткі (-ага)		хуткае			хуткую			хуткія (-іх)
Gen.		хуткага		хуткага		хуткай			хуткіх
Dat.		хуткаму		хуткаму		хуткай			хуткім
Instr.		хуткім			хуткім			хуткай			хуткімі
Prep.		аб хуткім		аб хуткім		аб хуткай		аб хуткіх

5.2		Palatized stem adjectives

	Adjectives, whose stem ends in a palatized consonant, decline like апошні, last.

		Masc.			Neut.			Fem.			Pl.
Nom.		апошні		апошняе		апошняя		апошнія
Acc.		апошні (-яга)		апошняе		апошнюю		апошнія (-іх)
Gen.		апошняга		апошняга		апошняй		апошніх
Dat.		апошняму		апошняму		апошняй		апошнім
Instr.		апошнім		апошнім		апошняй		апошнімі
Prep.		аб апошнім		аб апошнім		аб апошняй		аб апошніх

5.3		Adjective ending variation

	The adjectives declined above have the most current and accepted endings, but variations do exist. One common variation replaces the final –й of the feminine prepositional ending with a –ю. See Section 3.5 for more on how this variation affects nouns. Another variation replaces the final –й of the feminine genitive ending with a –е. Although these variations do exist, they are non-standard and should be avoided by the non-native speaker.

5.3		Short adjectives

	The use of short adjectives is much more rare in Belarusian than in Russian, being used almost exclusively for the neuter third person impersonal. As in Russian, such adjectives are only used predicatively. The neuter form of the short adjective is identical to the adverb. See Chapter 29 for more on adverb formation.
	Only a very few adjectives can take a short form for anything other than the third person impersonal. These include гатовы, ready, and рады, glad. The word павінен, which translates as should, has no long form and can only be used as a short adjective.
 	The forms of the most common short adjectives are given below, along with some examples.

	Masc.			Neut.			Fem.			Pl.
	гатоў			гатова			гатова			гатовы
	павінен		павінна		павінна		павінны
	рад			рада			рада			рады

Будзь гатоў! — Заўжды гатоў!			Be prepared! — Always prepared!
Я рада, што пакінуў.					I am glad that he left.
Яна павінна адразу сказаць ім.			She should immediately tell him.

Было маркотна, калі ён не прыйшоў.		It was sad when he did not come.
Мы дужа працавалі, каб усё	 было зроблена	We worked hard so that everything would be done
	ў час.							on time.

The long adjective is usually used if the subject is not the neuter third person impersonal.

Пакой поўны людзей.				The room is full of people.
Яна не абавязаная дапамагчы яму.			She is not obligated to help him.

Chapter 6: Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
 
	Only qualitative adjectives can have a superlative or comparative form. If an English adjective can be used comparatively or superlatively, the equivalent Belarusian adjective most likely can as well. By the same token, if the English adjective cannot be used comparatively or superlatively, the Belarusian adjective probably cannot also.

6.1		Short comparative adjective formation

	The short comparative form of an adjective is identical to the comparative adverb. The comparative adverb is formed by removing the final –ы or –і and replacing it with an accented –ей. See 29.4 for more on the comparative adverb.

	бедны			poor			бядней		poorer
	белы			white			бялей			whiter
	важны			important		важней		more important
	вольны		free			вальней		more free
	вясёлы		fun			весялей		more fun
	дакладны		precise			дакладней		more precise
	ранні			early			раней			earlier

	If the last consonant of the adjective is invariably non-palatized, the final –ы is replaced with –эй.

	мудры			wise			мудрэй		wiser
	прыгожы		beautiful		прыгажэй		more beautiful
	хітры			cunning		хітрэй			more cunning

	For adjectives ending in –ты or –ды, the ending is removed and replaced with one of the accented endings –цей or –дзей respectively.

	багаты			rich			багацей		richer
	густы			thick, viscous		гусцей			thicker, more viscous
	жоўты			yellow			жаўцей		more yellow
	малады		young			маладзей		younger
	просты		simple			прасцей		simpler
	тоўсты			thick, fat		таўсцей		thicker, fatter
	цвёрды		hard, firm		цвярдзей		harder, firmer
	чысты			clean			чысцей		cleaner

There are a number of irregular comparative adjectives.

	высокі			high			вышей			higher
	глыбокі		deep			глыбей		deeper
	далёкі			far			далей			farther
	шырокі		wide			шырэй			wider
	
	блізкі			near			бліжэй			nearer
	вузкі			narrow			вужэй			narrower
	гладкі			smooth		гладзей		smoother
	кароткі		short			карацей		shorter
	салодкі		sweet			саладзей		sweeter
	глухі			deaf			глушэй		deafer
	дарагі			expensive		даражэй		more expensive
	доўгі			long			даўжэй		longer
	лёгкі			light			лягчэй			lighter
	мяккі			soft			мякчэй		softer
	ціхі			quiet			цішэй			quieter
	хуткі			fast			хутчэй			faster

6.2		Short comparative adverb usage

	Because short comparative adjectives are adverbs, they do not decline and can only be used predicatively.

	Я маладзей за яго.				I am younger than him.
	Кожнаму хацелася стаць бліжэй да вады.	Each wanted to get closer to the water.

6.3		Irregular short comparative adjectives

	A small number of adjectives have unique short comparative adjective forms, separate from their short comparative adverb form. These adjectives all end in –шы, decline like other adjectives, and are not limited to predicate usage.

	вялікі			big			большы		bigger
	добры			good			лепшы			better
	дрэнны		bad			горшы			worse
	малы			small			меншы		smaller

	Some examples of usage of short comparative adjectives are given.

	Сам быў не ў лепшым стане.		I myself was not in any better shape.
	Там былі яблыкі болшыя, чым тут.		The apples were bigger over there than here.

The adjective малады, young, has the normal short comparative form маладзей, but it also has an additional short comparative form малодшы, which has the specialized meaning of junior. The adjective стары does not have a normal short comparative form, but there is the specialized word старшы, which means older, or senior. Both малодшы and старшы are used like any normal adjective.

	Малодшы лейтэнант камандаваў		The junior lieutenant commanded the mortar
		мінамётнай ротай.				company.
	Апроч мяне была ў маці яшчэ		My mother had another daughter besides
		дачка, мая сястра старшая.			me - my older sister.

6.4		Long comparative adjectives

	Adjectives that do not have a short comparative form can be used comparatively by placing either больш, more, or менш, less, before the word.

Я больш палітычны, чым вы	разам узятыя.	I am more tactful than both of you combined.
	Беражок ля ямы стаў больш	 зручны.	The rim around the hole became more convenient.

6.5		Superlatives ending in –ейшы or –эйшы

	Any adjective which has a short comparative form can form a superlative by appending the ending –шы to that short comparative form. Adjectives without a short comparative form that ends in –ей or –эй do not have a unique superlative form. 

	бядней		poorer			бяднейшы		poorest
	бялей			whiter			бялейшы		whitest
	даражэй		more expensive	даражэйшы		most expensive
	карацей		shorter			карацейшы		shortest
	мякчэй		softer			мякчэйшы		softest
	раней			earlier			ранейшы		earliest

The adjective стары, old, has no short comparative form, but does have the superlative старэйшы, oldest.

6.6 		Superlatives using the adverb самы

	The superlative form of any qualitative adjective can be formed by placing the adjective самы, most, before the adjective and by then declining самы to agree with the adjective. This is the form used for adjectives that do not have a superlative form ending in –ейшы or –эйшы, like the adjectives discussed in Section 6.3.

	Яны стаялі перад самым крутым узоркам.	They stood in front of the steepest hill.
	А ўвогуле розум — не самае галоўнае	Generally, the mind is not the most
		ў чалавеку.					important thing to a person.

6.8		Superlatives with the prefix най-

	This prefix can be appended to ordinary superlatives, the comparative adjectives mentioned in Section 6.3, or to adjectives that normally has no special superlative form. The prefix най- slightly changes the meaning of the word. A normal superlative indicates that the characteristic of the noun is the extreme when compared to others. When the prefix най- is appended, the meaning indicates that the characteristic of the adjective is extreme, regardless of whether it is compared to others or not.

	Гэта — найбольшы знак для			This is a really big sign for the town that
		гарадка, што заўтра вайна.			there will be war tomorrow.
	Гэтую даведку, бы найдаражэйшы		She buried this affidavit in the papers, as
		дакумент, яна загарнула ў			if it were a most valuable document.
		паперку.
	Я калісьці буду найпершы.			Someday I will be the very first.

Chapter 7: Personal Pronouns

7.1		Personal pronouns

		1st Pers. Sing.	2nd Pers. Sing.	1st Pers. Pl.		2nd Pers. Pl.

Nom.		я			ты			мы			вы
Acc.		мяне			цябе			нас			вас
Gen.		мяне			цябе			нас			вас
Dat.		мне			табе			нам			вам
Instr.		мной*			табой*			намі			вамі
Prep.		аба мне		аб табе		аб нас			аб вас

		3rd Pers. Masc.	3rd Pers. Neut.	3rd Pers. Fem.	3rd Pers. Pl.

Nom.		ён			яно			яна			яны
Acc.		яго			яго			яе			іх
Gen.		яго			яго			яе			іх
Dat.		яму			яму			ёй			ім
Instr.		ім			ім			ёй*			імі
Prep.		аб ім			аб ім			аб ёй			аб іх

7.2		The reflexive personal pronoun

	The reflexive pronoun is a direct synonym for the subject of the sentence. This means that it cannot be the subject of a sentence and does not have a nominative form. This pronoun is used when the subject of the sentence is also some other part of the sentence, such as the direct or indirect object.

Acc.		сябе
Gen.		сябе
Dat.		сабе
Instr.		сабой*
Prep.		аб сабе

	*The variations мною, табою, ёю, and сабою are very common, but are non-standard and should be avoided by the non-native speaker. See Section 3.5 for how this variation effects nouns.

7.3		The pronoun сам

	This pronoun is used to emphasize part of the sentence, either the subject, an object, or indirect object. When not used with the subject of the sentence, the pronoun сам simply imparts emphasis and is not actually translated. When used with the subject of the sentence, however, its meaning can be roughly translated as myself, yourself, himself, etc... The pronoun сам is used like an adjective, matching the case and gender of the noun it describes.

		Masc.			Neut.			Fem.			Pl.
Nom.		сам			само			сама			самі
Acc.		сам (-ога)		само			саму			самі (-іх)
Gen.		самога			самога			самой			саміх
Dat.		самому		самому		самой			самім
Instr.		самім			самім			самой			самімі
Prep.		аб самім		аб самім		аб самой		аб саміх

	Ён вырашыў сам прыйсці.			He decided to come himself.
	Аднойчы нават выратаваў саму каралеву.	Once he even rescued the queen.
	Але гаварыў ён толькі з самімі суседзьмі.	But he only spoke with the neighbors.

Chapter 8: Possessive and Demonstrative Pronouns

	These pronouns follow the same rules as adjectives, declining for gender and case to match the nouns they modify, see Chapter 5 for more details on adjectives.

8.1		Possessive pronouns

	The first person singular possessive pronoun мой, my, declines as follows.

		Masc.			Neut.			Fem.			Pl.
Nom.		мой			маё			мая			мае
Acc.		мой (майго)		маё			маю			мае (маіх)
Gen.		майго			майго			маёй			маіх
Dat.		майму			майму			маёй			маім
Instr.		маім			маім			маёй			маімі
Prep.		аб маім		аб маім		аб маёй		аб маіх

	The second person singular possessive pronoun твой, your, declines as follows.

Nom.		твой			тваё			твая			твае
Acc.		твой (твайго)		тваё			тваю			твае (тваіх)
Gen.		твайго			твайго			тваёй			тваіх
Dat.		твайму		твайму		тваёй			тваім
Instr.		тваім			тваім			тваёй			тваімі
Prep.		аб тваім		аб тваім		аб тваёй		аб тваіх

	The first person plural possessive pronoun наш, our, declines as follows.

Nom.		наш			наша			наша			нашы
Acc.		наш (нашага)		наша			нашу			нашы (нашых)
Gen.		нашага		нашага		нашай			нашых
Dat.		нашаму		нашаму		нашай			нашым
Instr.		нашым		нашаму		нашай			нашымі
Prep.		аб нашым		аб нашым		аб нашай		аб нашых

The second person plural possessive pronoun ваш, your, declines as follows.

		Masc.			Neut.			Fem.			Pl.
Nom.		ваш			ваша			ваша			вашы
Acc.		ваш (вашага)		ваша			вашу			вашы (вашых)
Gen.		вашага			вашага			вашай			вашых
Dat.		вашаму		вашаму		вашай			вашым
Instr.		вашым		вашаму		вашай			вашымі
Prep.		аб вашым		аб вашым		аб вашай		аб вашых

8.2		Third person possessive pronouns

	The words ягоны, his, ейны, her, and іхны, their, are the most common way of indicating possession. They decline like normal adjectives and their usage is extremely common, however there are some who feel that their usage is colloquial and that possession should be indicated by preceding the noun with the genitive form of the third person pronoun.

8.3		The reflexive pronoun

	The pronoun свой roughly translates as one’s own, and declines as follows.

Nom.		свой			сваё			свая			свае
Acc.		свой (свайго)		сваё			сваю			свае (сваіх)
Gen.		свайго			свайго			сваёй			сваіх
Dat.		свайму		свайму		сваёй			сваім
Instr.		сваім			сваім			сваёй			сваімі
Prep.		аб сваім		аб сваім		аб сваёй		аб сваіх

8.4		The interrogative possesive pronoun

	The pronoun чый roughly translates as whose, and declines as follows.

Nom.		чый			чыё			чыя			чые
Acc.		чый (чыйго)		чыё			чыю			чые (чыіх)
Gen.		чыйго			чыйго			чыёй			чыіх
Dat.		чыйму			чыйму			чыёй			чыім
Instr.		чыім			чыім			чыёй			чыімі
Prep.		аб чыім		аб чыім		аб чыёй		аб чыіх

8.5		The demonstrative pronouns

	The pronouns гэты, this, and той, that, decline as follows.

		Masc.			Neut.			Fem.			Pl.
Nom.		гэты			гэта			гэта			гэтыя
Acc.		гэты (гэтага)		гэта			гэта			гэтыя (гэтых)
Gen.		гэтага			гэтага			гэту			гэтых
Dat.		гэтаму			гэтаму			гэтай			гэтым
Instr.		гэтым			гэтым			гэтай			гэтымі
Prep.		аб гэтым		аб гэтым		аб гэтай		аб гэтых

Nom.		той			тое			тая			тыя
Acc.		той (-аго)		тое			тую			тыя (-ых)
Gen.		таго			таго			той			тых
Dat.		таму			таму			той			тым
Instr.		тым			тым			той			тымі
Prep.		аб тым			аб тым			аб той			аб тых

	The pronoun гэны, that, declines just like гэты. It is not very common.

	Гэны ўсё можа.				That guy can do anything.
	Усе пра гэна даведаліся.			Everybody found out about that.

8.6		The pronoun увесь

	The pronoun увесь, all, declines as follows.

Nom.		увесь			усё			уся			усе
Acc.		увесь (усяго)		усё			усю			усе (усіх)
Gen.		усяго			усяго			усёй			усіх
Dat.		усяму			усяму			усёй			усім
Instr.		усім			усім			усёй			усімі
Prep.		аба ўсім		аба ўсім		аба ўсёй		аба ўсіх

Увесь час адчуваючы ветлівасць і шчырасць	The whole time feeling the courtesy and 
серцаў усёй ягонае сям’і.				sincerity of his entire family.
Яна працавала як усе, можа, і больш за ўсіх.	She worked like everyone else, maybe even
								more than everyone else.	

Chapter 9: Interrogative and Relative Pronouns

	These pronouns follow the same rules as adjectives, declining for gender and case to match the nouns they modify, see Chapter 5 for more details on adjectives.

9.1		The interrogative pronouns

	The pronouns што, what, and хто, who, decline as follows.

Nom.		што			хто
Acc.		што			каго
Gen.		чаго			каго
Dat.		чаму			каму
Instr.		чым			кім
Prep.		аб чым		аб кім

	The pronouns нішто, nothing, and ніхто, nobody, decline like што and хто except for the genitive case, for which the accent lies on the middle syllable.

	Гэта нішто.					It’s nothing.
	Я нічога не сказаў.				I didn’t say anything.
	Год таму зразумеў, што ў жыцці		A year ago I realized that in life,
		я ніхто і нішто.			I am a nobody and a nothing.
	У пакоі ўжо нікога не было.			There was already noone in the room.

9.2		The pronoun які

	The pronoun які declines just like the adjective другі, second, see 5.1 for the complete declension. The pronoun is used as the conjunction which or what. It is also used as an exclamation.

	Якую кнігу чытаеш?				Which book are you reading?
	Вось кніга, якую чытаю.			This is the book, which I am reading.
	Якая дата сёння?				What is the date today?
	Якая прыгожая дзяўчына!			What a pretty girl!

Chapter 10: Numerals

10.1		Numerals and case governance

	The numeral адзін, one, is used just like an adjective, following the same rules. It declines to match the case and gender of the noun it describes. See Chapter 5 for more details. The numerals два, two, тры, three, and чатыры, four, as well as абодва, both, all decline to agree with the case of the noun that they govern. Два and абодва also decline to match the gender of their corresponding nouns. Like adjectives, the accusative animate forms of these numerals coincide with the genitive forms for masculine objects.

	У мяне застаецца адна ручка.		I have one pen left.
	У нас два новыя сталы.			We have two new tables.
	Я прыехаў з дзвюма гарматамі.		I arrived with two cannons.
	Ён тры дні не паднімаўся з гнілой		For three days, he did not get up off of the rotting
		саломы.					hay.
	Ён узяўся абедзвюма рукамі за вугал.	He grabbed the corner with both 										hands

	When the numerals два, тры, чатыры, and абодва are used as either the subject or the inanimate direct object of a clause, the nouns that they govern take a special form. For feminine nouns, this form is identical to the genitive singular. For masculine and neuter nouns, it is formed by appending either ы or і to the root, depending on whether the root has a palatized or non-palatized ending and on other spelling rules. Any modifying adjectives are declined for the nominitive plural.

	У селяніна ёсць два кані.			The villager has two horses.
	Дзве дзяўчыны прыйшлі.			Two young ladies came.
	Вось гэтыя тры акны.				Look at these three windows.
	Чатыры чалавекі стаяць там.		Four people are standing over there. 
	Абодва сыны служаць у арміі.		Both sons are serving in the army.
	Абедзве даты вельмі прыблізныя.		Both dates are very close.

10.2		The number one

	The number адзін, one, declines as follows. 

		Masc.			Neut.			Fem.			Pl. 
Nom.		адзін			адно			адна			адны
Acc.		адзін (-аго)		адно			адну			адны (-ых)
Gen.		аднаго			аднаго			адной			адных
Dat.		аднаму		аднаму		адной			адным
Instr.		адным			адным			адной			аднымі
Prep.		аб адным		аб адным		аб адной		аб адных

	The plural form адны is used with nouns that have no singular form, as well as with certain idiomatic constructions.

	Там былі адны хлопцы.			There were only boys there.
	Ён там быў толькі адны суткі.		He was here for only twenty-four hours.
	
The word адзін is also used in certain constructions to mean each other.

	Мы разумеем адзін аднаго.			We understand each other.
	Падморгвалі адзін аднаму зайздросным	They winked at each other with
		калючым вокам.				piercing envious eyes.

10.3		The number two and the word both

	The number два, two, declines as follows. 

		Masc.			Neut.			Fem.
Nom.		два			два			дзве
Acc.		два (двух)		два			дзве
Gen.		двух			двух			дзвюх	
Dat.		двум			двум			дзвюм
Instr.		двума			двума			дзвюма
Prep.		аб двух		аб двух		аб дзвюх

	The word абодва, both, declines as follows.

		Masc.			Neut.			Fem.
Nom.		абодва		абодва		абедзве
Acc.		абодва (абодвух)	абодва		абедзве (абедзвюх)
Gen.		абодвух		абодвух		абедзвюх	
Dat.		абодвум		абодвум		абедзвюм
Instr.		абодвума		абодвума		абедзвюма
Prep.		аб абодвух		аб абодвух		аб абедзвюх

10.4		Three and four

	The numbers тры, three, and чатыры, four, decline as follows. 

Nom.		тры			чатыры
Acc.		тры (трох)		чатыры (чатырох)
Gen.		трох			чатырох
Dat.		тром			чатыром
Instr.		трыма			чатырма
Prep.		аб тром		аб чатырох

10.5		Five and up

	These numbers all decline like сувязь, as shown in Section 2.9, including сем, seven, and восем, eight, even though they do not end in a ь. 

	пяць			five			чатырнаццаць	fourteen
	шэсць			six			пятнаццаць		fifteen
	сем			seven			шаснаццаць		sixteen
	восем			eight			семнаццаць		seventeen
	дзевяць		nine			васемнаццаць	eighteen
	дзесяць		ten			дзевятнаццаць	nineteen
	адзінаццаць		eleven			дваццаць		twenty
	дванаццаць		twelve			трыццаць		thirty
	трынаццаць		thirteen

	In 2008, Alyaksandr Lukashenka issued a law on Belarusian orthography and punctuation, which altered the state-sanctioned rules of Belarusian orthography. It changed the official state-sanctioned form of many numerals to make them more consistent with the яканне phenomenon described in Section 1.4. Following this change, the new forms of seventeen and eighteen became сямнаццаць and васямнаццаць respectively.

10.6		Forty, ninety, and one hundred

	The words сорак, forty, дзевяноста, ninety, and сто, one hundred, decline as follows.

Nom.		сорак			дзевяноста		сто
Acc.		сорак			дзевяноста		ста
Gen.		сарака			дзевяноста		ста	
Dat.		сарака			дзевяноста		ста
Instr.		сарака			дзевяноста		ста
Prep.		аб сарака		аб дзевяноста	аб ста

10.7		Fifty, sixty, seventy, and eighty

	These words have two roots, both of which decline. Because of this, although the main accent falls on the final syllable, there is a quieter accent on the end of the first root.

		fifty			sixty			seventy		eighty
Nom.		пяцьдзесят		шэсцьдзесят		семдзесят		восемдзесят
Acc.		пяцьдзесят		шэсцьдзесят		семдзесят		восемдзесят
Gen.		пяцідзесяці		шасцідзесяці		сямідзесяці		васьмідзесяці
Dat.		пяцідзесяці		шасцідзесяці		сямідзесяці		васьмідзесяці
Instr.		пяццюдзесяццю	шасцюдзесяццю	сямюдзесяццю	васьмюдзесяццю
Prep.		пяцідзесяці		аб шасцідзесяці	аб сямідзесяці	аб васьмідзесяці

	The 2008 state-sanctioned orthography reform changed the official spelling of пяцьдзесят to пяцьдзясят.

10.8		Two hundred and beyond

	These numbers also have two roots, which both decline. The number дзвесце, two hundred, has only one accent. The numbers трыста, three hundred, чатырыста, four hundred, and пяцьсот, five hundred, have only one accent in the nominative and accusative cases, but two accents in the rest of the cases. The numbers шэсцьсот, six hundred, семсот, seven hundred, восемсот, eight hundred, and дзевяцьсот, nine hundred, have two accents throughout all their forms.

Nom.		дзвесце		трыста			чатырыста		пяцьсот
Acc.		дзвесце		трыста			чатырыста		пяцьсот
Gen.		дзвюхсот		трохсот		чатырохсот		пяцісот
Dat.		дзвюмстам		тромстам		чатыромстам		пяцістам
Instr.		дзвюмастамі		трымастамі		чатырмастамі		пяцістамі
Prep.		аб дзвюхстах		аб трохстах		аб чатырохстах	аб пяцістах
Nom.		шэсцьсот		семсот			восемсот		дзевяцьсот
Acc.		шэсцьсот		семсот			восемсот		дзевяцьсот
Gen.		шасцісот		сямісот		васмісот		дзевяцісот
Dat.		шасцістам		сямістам		васмістам		дзевяцістам
Instr.		шасцюстамі		сямюстамі		васмюстамі		дзевяццюстамі
Prep.		аб шасцістах		аб сямістах		аб васмістах		аб дзевяцістах

10.9		Collective numerals

	These numbers are used with nouns that do not have a singular form, and in certain cases with animate nouns. The collective numerals have adjectival endings for the oblique cases. When a collective numeral is in the nominative or accusative case, the noun that it governs takes the genitive plural case. For oblique cases, the noun takes the same case as the numeral. As always, the accusative animate form is the same as the genitive.

Nom.		двое			трое			чацвёра		пяцёра
Acc.		двое			трое			чацвёра		пяцёра
Gen.		дваіх			траіх			чацвярых		пяцярых
Dat.		дваім			траім			чацвярым		пяцярым
Instr.		дваімі			траімі			чацвярымі		пяцярымі
Prep.		аб дваіх		аб траіх		аб чацвярых		аб пяцярых

Nom.		шасцёра		сямёра
Acc.		шасцёра		сямёра
Gen.		шасцярых		семярых
Dat.		шасцярым		семярым
Instr.		шасцярымі		семярымі
Prep.		аб шасцярых		аб семярых

	The words двое, трое, and чацвёра can be used with nouns that only have a plural form.

	У нас двое саней.				We have two sleds.
	Загадана ўзяць ежы на трое сутак.		It was ordered that enough food be taken for three									days.

	These numerals can also be used to denote a number of people. They are especially used with men, workers, children, and words that decline like the neuter nouns of Section 2.6.

	У яго трое дзяцей.				He has three children.
	Чацвёра манахаў-дамініканаў неслі	Four Dominican monks carried a large black cross.
		вялізны чорны крыж.
	Сем прыйшлі, а пяцёра з іх спазніліся.	Seven came, but five of them were late.

	There is along with these words the word абое, which means both.

	Сцяпан моўчкі пазіраў на абаіх.		Stsyapan silently glanced at both of them.
	Аблапіў дзяўчыну і абое паваліліся ў	He hugged the girl and both fell into the soft clover.
		мяккую канюшыну.

10.10	Ordinal numerals

	These adjectives are used as ordinal numbers.

	першы			first			пятнаццаты		fifteenth
	другі			second			шаснаццаты		sixteenth
	трэці			third			семнаццаты		seventeenth
	чацвёрты		fourth			васемнаццаты	eighteenth
	пяты			fifth			дзевятнаццаты	nineteenth
	шосты			sixth			дваццаты		twentieth
	сёмы			seventh		трыццаты		thirtieth
	восьмы		eighth			саракавы		fortieth
	дзевяты		ninth			пяцідзесяты		fiftieth
	дзесяты		tenth			шасцідзесяты		sixtieth
	адзінаццаты		eleventh		сямідзесяты		seventieth
	дванаццаты		twelfth			васьмідзесяты	eightieth
	трынаццаты		thirtieth		дзевяносты		ninetieth
	чатырнаццаты	fourteenth		соты			hundredth

	The 2008 orthography reform law changed the state-sanctioned spelling of the ordinal numerals ninth, tenth, fiftieth, sixtieth, seventieth, and eightieth to дзявяты, дзясяты, пяцідзясяты, шасцідзясяты, сямідзясяты, and васьмідзясяты respectively.

Chapter 11: 1st Conjugation Verbs

	Most of the difficulty involved with Belarusian verbs comes from the spelling rules, which distort the ending of the verb. Careful attention to spelling rules predicts and explains the different variations of conjugation. Verbs of the 1st conjugation are called type 1 verbs. Unless otherwise noted, all verbs here are imperfective.

11.1		The root ends in a vowel and the ending is accented

	In general, type 1 verbs conjugate like даваць, to give.

		даю			даём
		даеш			даяце
		дае			даюць
								1st Pers. Sing.	2nd Pers. Sing.
	жаваць		to chew 			жую		жуеш
	пець			to sing				пяю		пяеш

	This group also incudes verbs whose stem ends in ь or the apostrophe. An example of these is біць, to hit.

		б’ю			б’ём
		б’еш			б’яце
		б’е			б’юць

	ліць			to pour				лью		льеш
	піць			to drink			п’ю		п’еш

11.2		The root ends in a vowel and the root is accented

	Verbs of this type conjugate like чакаць, to wait.

		чакаю			чакаем
		чакаеш		чакаеце
		чакае			чакаюць

	гадаць			to guess			гадаю		гадаеш
	шыць			to sew				шыю		шыеш

11.3		The root ends in a consonant and the ending is accented

	Most verbs of this type conjugate like жыць, to live.

		жыву			жывём
		жывеш		жывяце
		жыве			жывуць
								1st Pers. Sing.	2nd Pers. Sing.
	зваць			to call				заву		завеш
	грызці			to gnaw			грызу		грызеш

	For verbs of this type, whose root ends in д or т for the first person singular and third person plural, the final consonant changes to either дз or ц for the other persons. They conjugate like класці, to put.

		кладу			кладзём
		кладзеш		кладзяце
		кладзе			кладуць

	ісці			to go				іду		ідзеш
	цвісці			to bloom			цвіту		цвіцеш

	For verbs of this type, whose root ends in г or к for the first person singular and third person plural, the final consonant changes to either ж or ч for the other persons. They conjugate like пячы, to bake.

		пяку			пячом
		пячэш			пячаце
		пячэ			пякуць

	сячы			to cut up			сяку		сячэш
	берагчы		to safeguard			берагу		беражэш

	Verbs of this type, whose root ends in an invariable non-palatized consonant conjugate like браць, to take.

		бяру			бяром
		бярэш			бераце
		бярэ			бяруць

	перці			to make one’s way		пру		прэш
	церці			to rub				тру		трэш

11.4		The root ends in a consonant and the root is accented

	Verbs like these conjugate like цягнуць, to pull.

		цягну			цягнем
		цягнеш		цягнеце
		цягне			цягнуць
								1st Pers. Sing.	2nd Pers. Sing.
	прыняць		to accept			прыму		прымеш
	узяць			to take				вазму		возмеш

	Verbs of this type, whose root ends in д, conjugate like быць, to be.

		буду			будзем
		будзеш		будзеце
		будзе			будуць

	ехаць			to go [by vehicle]		еду		едзеш
	красці			to steal			краду		крадзеш

	Verbs of this type, whose root ends in г, conjugate like магчы, to be able.

		магу			можам
		можаш		можаце
		можа			могуць

	легчы			to lie down			лягу		ляжаш

	Verbs of this type, whose root ends in an invariably non-palatized consonant, conjugate like рэзаць, to cut.

		рэжу			рэжам
		рэжаш			рэжаце
		рэжа			рэжуць

	казаць			to say				кажу		кажаш
	плакаць		to cry				плачу		плачаш

Chapter 12: 2nd Conjugation Verbs

	Most of the difficulty involved with Belarusian verbs comes from the spelling rules, which distort the ending of the verb. Careful attention to spelling rules predicts and explains the different variations of this conjugation. Unless otherwise noted, all verbs here are imperfective. Verbs of this conjugation are called type 2 verbs.

12.1		The root ends in a vowel

	Accent placement of type 2 verbs has no effect. Some examples of these verbs are стаяць, to stand, строіць, to prepare, and таіць, to hide.
	
стаю		стаім			строю		строім			таю		тоім
стаіш		стаіце			строіш		строіце		тоіш		тоіце 
стаіць		стаяць			строіць	строяць		тоіць		тояць

12.2		The root ends in a consonant

	These verbs conjugate very similarly to the verbs in 12.1, but there are variations on the endings, depending on what consonant the root ends in. Verbs, whose root ends in л or н have the same endings as the verbs shown above.
	
		помню			помнім
		помніш		помніце
		помніць		помняць
								1st Pers. Sing.	2nd Pers. Sing.
	валіць			to knock down			валю		валіш
	гнаць			to chase (determinate)	ганю		гоніш

	Verbs of this type, whose root ends in б, в, м, п, or ф, have a л added between the root and the ending for the first person singular.

		раблю			робім
		робіш			робіце
		робіць			робяць

	ставіць		to put				стаўлю		ставіш
	карміць		to feed				кармлю	корміш
	купіць			to buy (perfective)		куплю		купіш

If the final letters of the root are дз, з, с, сц, or ц, they change for the first person singular as shown below. An example of these verbs is хадзіць, to walk.

								дз	→	дж
		хаджу			ходзім			з	→	ж
		ходзіш			ходзіце		с	→	ш
		ходзіць		ходзяць		сц	→	шч
								ц	→	ч

								1st Pers. Sing.	2nd Pers. Sing.
	вазіць			to transport			важу		возіш
	ляцець		to fly				лячу		ляціш
	насіць			to carry			нашу		носіш
	песціць		to pamper			пешчу		песціш

	Verbs of this type, whose root ends in an invariably non-palatized consonant, conjugate like бачыць, to see.

		бачу			бачым
		бачыш			бачыце
		бачыць		бачаць

	гаварыць		to speak			гавару		гаворыш
	служыць		to serve			служу		служыш
	рашыць		to decide			рашу		рэшыш

Chapter 13: Miscellaneous and Irregular Verbs

13.1		Three miscellaneous verbs

	The verbs бегчы, to run, даць, to give, and есці, to eat, conjugate as follows.
	
бягу		бяжым		дам		дадзім			ем		ядзім
бяжыш	бяжыце		дасі		дасце			еш		ясце
бяжыць	бягуць			дасць		дадуць		есць		ядуць

13.2		Shifting stress

	For many verbs, the accent is on the ending for the first person singular, but is the root for all other persons. This happens most often when the final syllable of the infinitive is accented.

	Infin.						1st Pers. Sing.	2nd Pers. Sing.
	вазіць			to transport		важу		возіш
	гаварыць		to speak		гавару		гаворыш
	прыняць		to receive		прыму		прымеш
	хацець			to want		хачу		хочаш

13.3		Verb ending variation

	The verbs conjugated above have the most current and accepted endings, but variations do exist. One common variation that effects verbs of the types discussed in Sections 11.1 and 11.3 is to replace the ending of the 1st person plural, -ём or -ом, with the endings -ем or -эм, respectively. Another common variation, which affects all verbs with accented endings, replaces the final -е of the 2nd person plural with a -ё. Although these variations do exist, they are non-standard and should be avoided by the non-native speaker.

Chapter 14: Reflexive Verbs

14.1		Use of reflexive verbs

	The one characteristic that all reflexive verbs have in common is that they cannot take a direct object in the accusative case. Very often, the fact that the verb is reflexive means that the subject of the sentence is what is being acted upon.

	Мяч кідаецца ім.				The ball is thrown by him.
	Яны баяцца.					They are afraid.

14.2		Conjugation of reflexive verbs

	 Reflexive verbs in general are all formed from non-reflexive verbs in the same way. Below are given examples of both type 1 and type 2 reflexive verbs. The reader will notice that they are formed in the exact same way. An example of a type 1 reflexive verb is старацца, to try, and an example of a type 2 reflexive verb is туліцца, to press against.

	стараюся		стараемся			тулюся		тулімся
	стараешся		стараецеся			тулішся	туліцеся
	стараецца		стараюцца			туліцца	туляцца

								1st Pers. Sing.	2nd Pers. Sing.
	падабацца		to be pleasing			падабаюся	падабаешся
	спадзявацца		to hope			спадзяюся	спадзяешся
	баяцца		to fear				баюся		баішся
	нарадзіцца		to be born			нараджуся	народзішся

14.3		Reflexive past tense, participles, and gerunds

	 All other parts of the verb are formed like normal verbs, with the suffix –ся placed on the end.

	Ён стараўся дапамагаць.			He tried to help.
	Ляжалі абняўшыся і маўчалі.		They lay hugging and were quiet.
	Міхась быстра падняўся з зямлі,		Michael quickly got up off the ground,
		не аглядаючыся вакол.			not looking around.

Chapter 15: Past Tenses

15.1		Past tense formation

	Belarusian verbal aspect is similar to Russian and Ukrainian. Consult a text on one of these languages for more information on verbal aspect. Belarusian has two past tenses, the past perfect and the past imperfect. The past tense form is conjugated for gender and number, but not for person. The past tense is formed from the infinitive of the appropriate aspect.

	Мы шмат рабілі, калі жылі там.		We were getting a lot done while we were living
there.
	Я пазнаёміўся з ім, калі прыехаў.		I met him when I arrived.
	Густая і чорная вада цякла ціха		The thick and black water flowed quietly and 
		і спакойна. 					gently.

	Infinitives with the ending -ць form the past tense by replacing the final -ць with -ў to form the masculine, -ло to form the neuter, -ла to form the feminine, or -лі to form the plural. If unaccented, the neuter ending is -ла.

	Infin.					Masc.		Neut.		Fem.		Pl.
	быць		to be			быў		было		была		былі
	жыць		to live			жыў		жыло		жыла		жылі
	чытаць	to read			чытаў		чытала		чытала		чыталі

15.2		Past tense of verbs ending in -чы or -ці

	The past tense of these verbs really just have to be memorized. If the masculine form ends in -ў, the verb is conjugated for the other genders by replacing the final -ў with the proper ending, either -ло, -ла, or -лі.

	весці		to bring		вёў		вяло		вяла		вялі
	есць		to eat		еў		ела		ела		елі
	ісці		to go		ішоў		ішло		ішла		ішлі
	класці		to put		клаў		клала		клала		клалі
	красці		to steal		краў		крала		крала		кралі
	сесці		to sit		сеў		села		села		селі
	цвісці		to bloom		цвіў		цвіло		цвіла		цвілі

	If the masculine past tense form ends in a consonant, the other genders are formed by simply adding the appropriate ending to the end of the masculine form.

	Infin.					Masc.		Neut.		Fem.		Pl.
	бегчы		to run			бег		бегла		бегла		беглі
	берагчы	to take care of		бярог		берагло	берагла	бераглі
	валачы	to drag			валок		валакло	валакла	валаклі
	легчы		to lie down		лёг		лягло		лягла		ляглі
	магчы		to be able to		мог		магло		магла		маглі
	пячы		to bake			пёк		пякло		пякла		пяклі
	сячы		to cut up			сек		секла		секла		секлі
	стрыгчы	to cut [hair]		стрыг		стрыгло	стрыгла	стрыглі
	везці		to transport		вёз		вязло		вязла		вязлі
	лезці		to climb			лез		лезла		лезла		лезлі
	несці		to carry			нёс		несла		несла		неслі
	памерці	to die			памёр		памерла	памерла	памерлі
	перці		to make one’s way	пёр		перла		перла		перлі
	церці		to rub			цёр		церла		церла		церлі

15.3		Past tense of verbs ending in -нуць

	Most verbs ending in -нуць form the past tense normally, but there are a few irregular ones that just have to be memorized. These ones form the masculine past tense by removing the -нуць ending. The other genders are formed by adding the appropriate ending.

	глухнуць	to go deaf		глух		глухла		глухла		глухлі
	знікнуць	to disappear		знік		знікла		знікла		зніклі
	мерзнуць	to freeze		мёрз		мерзла	мерзла	мерзлі
	пранікнуць	to penetrate		пранік		пранікла	пранікла	праніклі
	прывыкнуць	to get used to	прывык	прывыкла	прывыкла	прывыклі
	сохнуць	to become dry	сох		сохла		сохла		сохлі
	узнікнуць	to arise		узнік		узнікла	узнікла	узніклі

Chapter 16: Present and Future Tenses

	Belarusian verbal aspect is similar to Russian and Ukrainian. Consult a text on one of these languages for more information on verbal aspect.

16.1		Present tense

	Belarusian has one present tense and two future tenses, the future perfect and the future imperfect. The present tense is formed by conjugating the infinitive of the imperfect aspect of a verb for the correct person.

	Я тут жыву.					I live here.
	Я жыву цяпер у сяброў.			I am living with friends right now.
	Я жыву з імі месяц.				I have lived with them for a month.

	The verb быць, to be, has no present tense conjugation. The verb to be is often rendered in the present tense as a pause, represented as a dash when written. It is dropped completely in third person impersonal constructions. Some of the functions of the verb to be can also be filled by other verbs like бываць, to occur, and стаць, to become.

	Я — амерыканец, а ты — беларус.		I am an American, and you are a Belarusian.
	Хлопчык — вельмі галодны.			The young man is very hungry.
	Цяжка вывучыць новую мову.		It is difficult to learn a new language.

	The word ёсць is also used to fulfill some of the functions of the verb to be. It is used either to emphasis the existence of the subject, or as a predicate meaning there is. The word ёсць is etymologically descended from the obsolete present tense conjugation of the Common Slavonic verb byti, to be.

	Ён з’явіўся такім, якім ён і ёсць		He appeared as that person, whom he is by his
		па сваёй натуры.				nature.
	Ёсць які-небудзь стары, што да		Is there anyone old that lived here before the war?
		вайны тут жыў?

16.2		Future imperfect formation

	The future imperfect tense is formed by conjugating the verb быць for the correct person, and following that with the infinitive of a verb’s imperfective aspect.

	Што будзеш рабіць?				What will you be doing?
	Я буду многа чытаць.			I will be reading a lot.

16.3		Future perfect formation

	The future perfect tense is formed by conjugating the infinitive of a verb’s perfective aspect for the correct person.

	Што зробіш?					What will you do?
	Я скончу гэту кнігу.				I will finish this book.

Chapter 17: The Imperative

17.1		Formation of the imperative

	In the case of the vast majority of Belarusian verbs, the imperative is formed as follows. Conjugate the verb for the 2nd person singular and remove the final two letters. If the stem ends in a vowel, add an -й. If the stem ends in an invariably non-palatized consonant, nothing is added, otherwise add either an -і or a -ь. The ending -і is added either if the infinitive is more than one syllable and the accent falls on the last syllable, or if the root ends in two or more consonants (note that the letter combinations дз and дж are each treated as a single letter). If neither of these two conditions is met, then a -ь is added. This forms the singular form of the imperative. To form the plural imperative, the suffix -це is appended to the singular form.

	Infin.				2rd Pers. Sing.	Stem		Imp. Sing.		Imp. Pl
	браць		to take		бярэш		бяр-		бяры			бярыце
	глядзець	to look		глядзіш	глядз-		глядзі			глядзіце	
	глянуць	to glance	гляніш		глян-		глянь			гляньце
	жыць		to live		жывеш	жыв-		жыві			жывіце
	легчы		to lie down	ляжаш		ляж-		ляж			ляжце
	мыць		to wash	мыеш		мы-		мый			мыйце
	ехаць		to drive	едзеш		едз-		едзь			едзьце
	рабіць		to do		робіш		роб-		рабі			рабіце
	рэзаць		to slice		рэжаш		рэж-		рэж			рэжце
	сячы		to cut	 up	сячэш		сяч-		сячы			сячыце
	стаць		to become	станеш	стан-		стань			станьце
	стукнуць	to knock	стукнеш	стукн-		стукні			стукніце
	чакаць		to wait		чакаеш	чака-		чакай			чакайце

17.2		Vowel changes due to spelling rules

	There are several verbs, which seem to be irregular, but the changes of their vowels are really just manifestions of spelling rules.

	баяцца	to fear		баішся		бо-		бойся			бойцеся
	смяяцца	to dare		смяешся	сме-		смейся		смейцеся
	стаяць		to stand	стаіш		сто-		стой			стойце

17.3		Verbs beginning with вы-

	If imperative form of verb ends in an -і (or -ы due to spelling rules) the verb formed by adding the prefix вы- to the verb also has an imperative that ends in -і, even though the accent will fall on the prefix.

	Infin.				Imp. Sing.	Infin.					Imp. Sing.
	весці		to lead		вядзі		вывесці	to lead away		выведзі
	казаць		to say		кажы		выказаць	to state smthng.	выкажы
	рваць		to tear		рві		вырваць	to tear away		вырві

17.4		Irregular imperatives

	Certain verbs have irregular imperatives. A few of these are given below.

	Infin.				2nd Pers. Sing.	Imp. Sing.		Imp. Pl.
	даваць	to give		даеш		давай			давайце
	даць		to give (Perf.)	дасі		дай			дайце
	есці		to eat		еш		еш			ешце

	біць		to hit		б’еш		бі			біце
	ліць		to pour		льеш		лі			ліце
	піць		to drink	пьеш		пі			піце

17.5		1st person plural imperative

	The most common way of forming the 1st person plural imperative is by using the word давайце. If the verb is imperfective, давайце is followed by the verb’s infinitive. If the verb is perfective, the word давайце is followed by the verb conjugated for the 1st person plural.

	Давайце яшчэ нальём.			Let’s pour in some more.
	Давайце крычаць: хто слабей		Let’s yell: Whoever yells the weakest,
		крыкне, таго зьядзём.			him we will eat.
	
	Alternatively, verbs do have a special form for the 1st person plural imperative.

	Бярэм манаткі і марш!			Let’s grab our gear and move out!
	Уцякайма, пакуль не позна.			Let’s get out of here, while it’s not to late.
	Едзем на базар, каб купіць ежу на заўтра.	Let’s go to the market to buy food for tomorrow.

If the 2nd person singular imperative ends in -й, the 1st person plural imperative is formed by adding the letters -ма to the end of the imperative.
	
	Infin.						Imp. Sing.		Imp. Pl.
	будаваць	to build			будуй			будуйма
	мыцца		to wash oneself		мыйся			мыймася
	чытаць	to read				чытай			чытайма	

	If the 2nd person singular imperative ends in an accented -ы or -і, the 1st person plural imperative is formed by replacing that final letter with -эм or -ем respectively.

	бегчы		to run				бяжы			бяжэм
	брацца	to wrap around smthng	бярыся		бярэмся
	крычаць	to yell				крычы			крычэм

	сарваць	to tear (Perf.)			сарві			сарвем
	спаць		to sleep			спі			спем
	хадзіць	to walk				хадзі			хадзем

	Otherwise, the 1st person plural imperative is identical to the 1st person plural indicative form.

	быць		to be				будзь			будзем
	сесці		to sit down (Perf.)		сядзь			сядзем
	легчы		to lie down (Perf.)		ляж			ляжам

17.6		3rd person imperative

	The third person imperative is formed by placing either the particle хай or няхай before the verb, conjugated for the third person, either singular or plural.

	Хай гаворыць.				Let him speak.
	Не чапай, хай ляжыць.			Don’t disturb him, let him lie.
	Хай будзе святло.				Let there be light!

Chapter 18: Verbs of Motion

	There is a set of verbs expressing motion, whose imperfective aspect has two distinct parts, the indeterminate form and the determinate form. The determinate form is used when expressing a distinct progression from one point to another. The indeterminate form is used in all other instances.

Indeter.				Deter.
хадзіць				ісці					to walk

	хаджу		ходзім			іду		ідзём
	ходзіш		ходзіце		ідеш		ідзяце
	ходзіць	ходзяць		ідзе		ідуць

	хадзіў		хадзілі			ішоў		ішлі
	хадзіла				ішло
	хадзіла				ішла

ездзіць				ехаць					to go [by transport]

	езджу		ездзім			еду		едзем
	ездзіш		ездзіце		едзеш		едзеце
	ездзіць	ездзяць		едзе		едуць

	ездзіў		ездзілі			ехаў		ехалі
	ездзіла				ехала
	ездзіла				ехала

бегаць					бегчы					to run

	бегаю		бегаем		бягу		бяжым
	бегаеш	бегаеце		бяжыш	бяжыце
	бегае		бегаюць		бяжыць	бягуць

	бегаў		бегалі			бег		беглі
	бегала					бегла
	бегала					бегла

вадзіць				весці					to lead

	ваджу		водзім			вяду		вядзём
	водзіш		водзіце		вядзеш	ведзяце
	водзіць	водзяць		вядзе		вядуць

	вадзіў		вадзілі			вёў		вялі
	вадзіла				вяло
	вадзіла				вяла

вазіць					везці					to transport

	важу		возім			вязу		вязём
	возіш		возіце			вязеш		везяце
	возіць		возяць			вязе		вязуць

	вазіў		вазілі			вёз		везлі
	вазіла					везла
	вазіла					везла

ганяць					гнаць					to chase

	ганяю		ганяем		ганю		гонім
	ганяеш	ганяеце		гоніш		гоніце
	ганяе		ганяюць		гоніць	гоняць

	ганяў		ганялі			гнаў		гналі
	ганяла					гнала
	ганяла					гнала

качаць					каціць					to roll

	качаю		качаем		качу		коцім
	качаеш	качаеце		коціш		коціце
	качае		качаюць		коціць		коцяць

	качаў		качалі			каціў		кацілі
	качала					каціла
	качала					каціла

лазіць					лезці					to climb

	лажу		лазім			лезу		лезем
	лазіш		лазіце			лезеш		лезеце
	лазіць		лазяць			лезе		лезуць

	лазіў		лазілі			лез		лезлі
	лазіла					лезла
	лазіла					лезла

лятаць					ляцець				to fly

	лятаю		лятаем		лячу		ляцім
	лятаеш	лятаеце		ляціш		ляціце
	лятае		лятаюць		ляціць		ляцяць

	лятаў		ляталі			ляцеў		ляцелі
	лятала					ляцела
	лятала					ляцела

насіць					несці					to carry

	нашу		носім			нясу		нясём
	носіш		носіце			нясеш		несяце
	носіць		носяць			нясе		нясуць

	насіў		насілі			нёс		неслі
	насіла					несла
	насіла					несла

цягаць					цягнуць				to pull

	цягаю		цягаем		цягну		цягнем
	цягаеш	цягаеце		цягнеш	цягнеце
	цягае		цягаюць		цягне		цягнуць

	цягаў		цягалі			цягнуў		цягнулі
	цягала					цягнула
	цягала					цягнула

Chapter 19: Verbal Prefixes

19.1		Prefix usage

	Adding a prefix to an imperfective verb usually creates a perfective verb with a modified meaning. Adding a prefix to an imperfective verb of motion does not create a perfective verb, but a new imperfective verb with a modified meaning. The same prefix is attached to the perfective aspect of the verb of motion to form the perfective form of the new verb.
When a prefix ending in a consonant is attached to a verb beginning in an iotized vowel, a buffer symbol ’ is placed between them.
When хадзіць has a prefix attached to it, the accent moves to the root for all forms. When ісці has a prefix attached to it, the initial і- changes to an й- and the accent falls on the prefix for all persons in the present tense except the 1st person singular. The exception to this is the prefix вы-, for which the accent always falls on this prefix, irrespective of person or tense. When either хадзіць or ісці has a prefix attached, which ends in a consonant, an ы is placed as a buffer between the prefix and root.

	аб’явіць		to announce		пад’ехаць		to drive up
	прыходжу		I am coming		прыходзіў		I came
	пойдзе		he will go		пайшоў		he went
	разышліся		they dispersed		адыходжу		I am leaving

19.2		Directional prefix meanings

	Each of these prefixes has additional meanings that have nothing to do with direction, but for now I have only listed the meanings which imply a direction of motion. Prefixes can be added to verbs to create new verbs. Adding a prefix to the indeterminate form of a verb of motion creates the imperfective infinitive of a verb, and adding the prefix to the determinate form creates the perfective infinitive of the same verb. The exception to this rule is the verb ехаць and ездзіць, to go [by transport]. The perfective aspect of a verb can be formed by adding a prefix to ехаць, but the imperfective aspect of the same verb is formed by adding the prefix to the verb язджаць. The form язджаць rarely occurs on its own, without a prefix. These prefixes can also be added to other, non-motion verbs.

па-		This prefix is added to the directional infinitive to form the 	perfective infinitive for all
verbs of motion.

				пайсці				to go [somewhere, on foot]
				паехаць			to go [somewhere, by transport]
				пабегчы			to run [somewhere]
				панесці			to carry [something somewhere]

аб-		This prefix implies encompassing or overtaking motion.

	абыходзіць		абыйсці			to walk around
	аб’язджаць		аб’ехаць			to drive around
	абганяць		абагнаць			to overtake
	абкладваць		абкласці			to surround [with something]

ад-		This prefix has the meaning of moving away.

	адыходзіць		адыйсці			to withdraw
	адносіць		аднесці			to carry off
	адбіраць		адабраць			to take away
	адрываць		адарваць			to tear off

вы-		This prefix has the meaning of going out of something.

	выходзіць		выйсці				to exit [on foot]
	вынасіць		вынесці			to carry out
	выбіраць		выбраць			to select
	вырываць		вырваць			to tear out

да-		This prefix implies movement as far as, or up to, a certain point.

	даходзіць		дайсці				to reach
	даносіць		данесці			to bring as far as
	даганяць		дагнаць			to catch up to
	дабірацца		дабрацца			to get as far as

з-		This prefix has the meaning of coming off of, or coming out of.

	зыходзіць		зыйсці				to come off of
	з’язжаць		з’ехаць			to depart
	зносіць		знесці				to take down from, to take out of
	знімаць		зняць				to remove

за-		Verbs with this prefix have the meanings of traveling far, or past something.

	заходзіць		зайсці				to walk behind
	забегаць		забегчы			to run ahead
	заносіць		занесці			to carry [far] away
	закладваць		закласці			to place behind

на-		Verbs with this prefix have the meaning of collision with something.

	находзіць		найсці				to come across, to walk into
	наязджаць		наехаць			to run into [with a vehicle]
	нападаць		напасці			to fall into
	наступаць		наступіць			to approach [a certain time]

пад-		This prefix has the basic meaning of upward motion.

	падыходзіць		падыйсці			to approach [on foot]
	пад’язджаць		пад’ехаць			to drive up to
	падбягаць		падбегчы			to run up to
	паднімаць		падняць			to lift

пера-		This prefix has the meaning of crossing over something.

	пераходзіць		перайсці			to walk across
	пераносіць		перанесці			to carry across
	перадаваць		перадаць			to pass along
	перакладваць	перакласці			to transfer, to translate

пра-		This prefix gives verbs the meaning of passing by something.

	праходзіць		прайсці			to pass by
	праязджаць		праехаць			to drive past
	прабягаць		прабегчы			to run by
	праносіць		пранесці			to carry by

раз-		This prefix gives verbs the meaning of movement in various 							directions, or distribution.

	разыходзіцца		разыйсціся			to disperse
	раз’язджацца		раз’ехацца			to drive away [in various directions] 
	разбягацца		разбегчыся			to run off, to scatter
	разлятацца		разляцецца			to fly away, to scatter
у-		This prefix gives verbs the meaning of entering. It changes to ува- 							with хадзіць and ісці.

	уваходзіць		увайсці			to enter
	уязджаць		уехаць				to drive in
	убягаць		убегчы				to run in
	уносіць		унесці				to carry in

уз-		This prefix gives verbs the meaning of upward motion.

	узыходзіць		узыйсці			to walk up
	узлазіць		узлезці			to climb up
	узлятаць		узляцець			to take off
	узвышаць		узвысіць			to elevate

Chapter 20: Gerunds and Participles

	Gerunds and participles are not commonly used in colloquial Belarusian, but they are found in literature.

20.1		Present imperfect gerunds

	These gerunds are formed by conjugating an imperfect infinitive of a verb for the 3rd person plural, removing the final -ць, and appending the ending -чы. They are often also used as a present active participle, but they do not decline.

	Infin.						3rd Pers. Pl.		Gerund 
	вяртацца		to turn			вяртаюцца		вяртаючыся
	гаварыць		to speak		гавораць		гаворачы
	пісаць			to write		пішуць			пішучы
	хадзіць		to walk			ходзяць		ходзячы
	чытаць		to read			чытаюць		чытаючы

	Яго вусны заварушыліся, нібы		His lips moved, as though forming a
		творачы святую малітву.			sacred prayer.
	Нават будучы параненым, ён не		Even being wounded, he didn’t have
		меў права на спакойнае			the right to a peaceful life.
		жыццё.

20.2		Past perfect gerunds

	These gerunds are formed from perfective verbs by conjugating the verb for the past tense masculine singular and adding the ending -шы.

	напісаць		to write		напісаў		напісаўшы
	зрабіць		to do			зрабіў			зрабіўшы
	вярнуцца		to return		вярнуўся		вярнуўшыся
	прынесці		to bring		прынёс		прынёсшы
	пабегчы		to run			пабег			пабегшы

	Напісаўшы, што трэба было, ён		Having written what was necessary, he
		пачаў поркацца ў паперах.		began to pore over the papers.
	Перанёсшы яго, рыбы доўга не		Having carried him over, the fish did not
		вярталіся.					return for a long time.

20.3		Past passive participles

	Participles are adjectives, obeying all the same rules that other adjectives do. Most of them are formed by attaching –аны, or –ены to the root of the infinitive. There really isn’t much rhyme or reason to the formation, each participle needs to be memorized. These participles can be formed from either aspect, but they are formed much more often from the perfective aspect.

	Infin.							Past Pass. Part.
	пісаць			to write			пісаны
	звязаць		to bind (perfective)		звязаны
	купіць			to buy (perfective)		куплены
	зрабіць		to do, to make (perfective)	зроблены
	скласці		to stack (perfective)		складзены

	Monosyllable infinitives form the past passive participle by removing the suffix -ць and appending -ты.

	мыць			to wash			мыты
	біць			to hit				біты
	шыць			to sew				шыты

	У выстаўцы ёсць каран беларускі,		In the exhibit there is a Belarusian Koran,
		пісаны татарскімі літарамі.			written with the Tatar alphabet.
	Яна была падобна да зробленай		She was like a statue wrought from stone.
		з каменю фігуркі.
	 Давялося-б яму зараз выціраць свой	He just happened to peel his face away
		твар ад слядоў, а галаве			from the footprints, and his head
		прышлося-б пазнаёміцца			happened to become aquainted with
		з бітым шклом.				the smashed glass.

20.4		Other participles

	Other participles such as the Present Active, Present Passive, and Past Active may be encountered very occasionally, especially in technical literature. These participles are uncommon in normal literature, and their use in Belarusian is considered to be a symptom of language interference from Russian. It is preferable to use other synonymous constructions.

Chapter 21: The Nominative Case

21.1		Use of the nominative case

	This case is taken by the subject of the sentence. If the verb of the sentence is ёсць, or if there is no verb, then the object of the sentence also takes the nominative case.

	Беларусь — прыгожы кут.			Belarus is a beautiful land.
	Але ён дурны, а я разумны.			But he is foolish, and I am wise.
	
	The direct objects of verbs such as зваць, to call, and its derivatives, often take the nominative case.

	Яго завуць Саша.				His name is Sasha.
(Literally: [They] call him Sasha.)

	The direct object of the verbs быць, to be, and стаць, to become, can take the nominative case if the direct object is an adjective that is being used as a predicate.

	Яна стала цяпер жвавая.			She’s now become lively. 
	Рана ці позна будуць названыя		Sooner or later, they will be labeled
		злачынцамі і праклатыя.			criminals and damned.

Chapter 22: The Accusative Case

22.1		Use of the accusative case

	The direct object of most verbs usually takes the accusative case. Certain prepositions are followed by nouns in the accusative case, often when motion is implied. A period of time placed in the accusative case, with no preposition preceding it, indicates that an action was carried out over the course of that time.

	Скажы мне, ты запраўды мяне кахаеш?		Tell me, do you really love me?
	Я жыў з імі месяц.					I lived with them for a month.

22.2		Prepositions with the accusative case

	The following prepositions can be followed by the accusative case. Often, the meaning of the prefix revolves around a sense of motion. The meaning of each preposition in that context is given.

аб		against
			Лодка стукнулася аб бераг.		The boat bumped against the shore.

з		about
			Прайшоў з кіламетр.			I walked about a kilometer.

за		behind
			Ён пайшоў за хату.			He went behind the house.
		at
			Саджуся за стол.			I sit down at the table.
		after
			Гаварылі далёка за поўнач.		They talked well past midnight.
		[not translated, expresses distance]
			Жыве за 40 кіламетраў за		He lives 40 kilometers from the city.
				горада.
		in
			Гэта можна зрабіць за два		This can get done in two days.
				дні.

на		on
			Паставіць яго на стол.		He will put it on the table.
		to
			Ідзём на Магілёў.			We’re going to Mohilyou.

		[not translated, similar to ‘per’]
			Два разы на тыдзень.		Twice a week.
		by
			Дыван тры на шэсць метраў.	The carpet is three by six meters.

па		up to
			Стаіць у вадзе па пояс.		He stands in water up to his waist.
		for
			Пайдзі пад студню па ваду.		Go to the well for water.
		along
			Людзі ішлі па той бок.		People were walking along that side.

пад		under
			Схаваў яго пад падушку.		He hid it under the pillow.
		about
			Гадоў пад сорак.			About forty years.
		to
			Пайдзі пад студню па ваду.		Go to the well for water.

паўз		by
			Праязджалі паўз лес.			We drove by the forest.

пра		about
			Мы гаварылі пра яго.		We were talking about him.

праз		through
			Прайсці праз натоўп.			To pass through a crowd.
		after
			Прыйшло праз дзве гадзіны.	It arrived after two hours.
		because of
			Праз гэта я многае страціў.		I suffered a lot because of this.

скрозь	through (implying difficulty)
			Промні прабіваліся скрозь галіны.	Sunbeams broke through the branches.

цераз		across
			Пераступіць цераз парог.		To step across the threshold.
		through
			Дождж ішоў цераз поўнач.		It rained right through midnight.

у		to
			Дзеці ходзяць ў школу.		The children go to school.
		in
			Запісаў гэта ў сшытак.		He wrote it down in his notebook.
		into
			Яны ўвайшлі ў лес.			They walked into the forest.
		on
			Стукаць у дзверы.			To knock on the door.
		at	
			Страляць у праціўніка.		To shoot at the enemy.
		up to
			Намяло снегу ў пояс.			Snow drifted up to waist height.
		[not translated, similar to ‘per’]
			Адзін раз у год.			Once a year.
		on
			Не працую ў выхадныя.		I don’t work on weekends.
		[used to denote multiplication]
			Два ў тры — шэсць.			Two times three is six.

Chapter 23: The Genitive Case

23.1		Use of the genitive case

	This case is used both by certain prepositions and also to express ownership and relationship. Some verbs, like баяцца, to fear, and хацець, to want, require that the direct object be placed in the genitive case. To negate a sentence, the particle не is placed before the direct object, and the direct object is placed in the genitive case. A lack of something can be expressed by the word няма, followed by the noun in the genitive plural, or genitive singular if the noun has no plural form.

	Расліны баяцца марозу.				Plants fear frost.
	Я сама гэтага хацела.					I wanted this myself.

	Невядома, хто гаспадар гэтага			No one knows who the owner of this
		катэджа.					cottage is.

	Я не маю часу.					I do not have any time.
	Я нічога не разумею.					I do not understand anything.

	Шкада, але і ў мяне нічога няма.			It is sad, but I do not have anything either.

23.2		Prepositions with the genitive case

	The following prepositions can be followed by the genitive case. The meaning of each preposition in that context is given.

ад		from
			Ад сасны адламалася галінка.	A branch broke off from the tree.
			Схаваліся ад дажджу.		They hid from the rain.
			Ад вясны да восені.			From spring to fall.
		than
			Мацней ад грому.			Stronger than thunder.

акрамя	but
			Там нікога не было акрамя мяне.	No one was there but me.

апрача	but
			Там нікога не было апрача мяне.	No one was there besides me.

без		without
			Без усялякай прычыны.		Without any excuse.

вакол		around
			Вакол яго сабраліся людзі.		People gathered around him.

воддаль	far from
			Воддаль дарогі стаяла вёска.	Far from the road stood a village.

да		until
			Яшчэ некалькі дзён да жніва.	It is still a few days until harvest.
		to
			Дадаць пяць да трох.		Add five to three.
			Ужо да берага падплываў.		He had already swam to the bank.

дзеля		for [someone’s benefit]
			Зраблю гэта дзеля цябе.		I will do this for you.

для		for
			Для яго гэта лёгкая справа.		It is an easy thing for him.

з		off of (opposite of на + accusative)
			 Прыбраў ліст з акна.			He removed the leaf off of the window.

		out of (opposite of у + accusative)
			Выйшаў з вады.			He got out of the water.

замест	instead
			Хочаш вады замест чаю?		Do you want water instead of tea?

звыш		more than
			Набраў звыш двух дзесяткаў.	He gathered more than twenty.

каля		near
			Дрэва расце каля плоту.		The tree grows near the fence.
		about
			Каля пяці гадзін.			About five o’clock.

ля		near
			Ён там ля лазьні блізка жыў.	He lived there, close near the bath-
house.

між		among
			Спрэчка між сябраў.			An argument among friends.

паводле	in accordance with
			Апранутая паводле апошняй	Dressed according to the latest
				моды.					fashions.

паміж		between
			Стаяць паміж двух агней.		To stand between two fires.

пасля		after
			Пасля аб'яднання, яны		After the unification, they selected
выбралі старэйшага.			an elder.
			Настаўніца, якая прыедзе		The teacher, who will come after
				пасля вучылішча.			the school.

супраць	across
			Хата стаіць супраць школы.		The house is across from the school.
		against
			Плысці супраць цячэння.		To swim against the current.
			Хто «за» і хто «супраць»?		Who is “for” and who is “against”? 
			Здарылася супраць маёй		It happened against my will.
				волі.

сярод		in the middle of
			Дрэва стаіць сярод поля.		A tree stands in the middle of a
									field.

у		[used to show possession]
			Няўжо ў іх няма сабакі?		Do they really not have a dog?
			У яго баліць галава.			His head hurts.
		at
			Шыць паліто ў краўца.		To have the coat mended at the tailor’s.

Chapter 24: The Dative Case

24.1		Use of the dative case

	This case is used to signify indirect objects, and is also used by certain prepositions. Very often, words in the dative case can be translated into English as having the word ‘to’ placed before them. There are also certain constructions with predicates that use the dative case.

	Вы даяце прыклад усім нашым		You give an example to all our workers.
		калгаснікам.
	Мне трэба выйсці.				I have to leave.
	Адставаць жа нельга нам!			We must not fall behind!
	Не дваццаць табе летаў!			You are not even twenty years old!
	
24.2		Prepositions with the dative case

	The preposition most commonly used with the dative case is па. There are many different meanings of па + dative, but a few examples are given below. For these usages, the preposition па only takes the dative when the indirect object is singular. If the object is plural, it must take the prepositional case.

	Я даў дзецям па яблыку.			I gave the children one apple apiece.
	Паляўнічы ідзе па слядах звера.		The hunter went along the animal’s tracks.
	Спаборніцтвы па футболу.			Soccer competition.
	Не прыехаў па хваробе.			He did not come because he was sick.
	Таварыш па універсітэту.			A friend from college.
 
	The preposition к is also used with the dative case. This preposition is quite a bit rarer in Belarusian than it is in Russian. Often, the preposition да + genitive is used in Belarusian in situations where Russian uses к + dative.

	[used to indicate moving towards something]
Травы цягнуліся к сонцу.		The plants strained towards the sun.

	for
		Спякла пірог к святу.			She baked a pie for the holiday.

	just before
		Прышоў на сход к дзвюм		I came to the meeting just before
			гадзінам.				two o’clock.

Chapter 25: The Instrumental Case

25.1		Use of the instrumental case

	This case is used by certain prepositions and also to signify that the noun functions as some means for an action. The direct object of some verbs, especially those that translate as to be, also takes this case. A word in the instrumental case can often be translated into English by preceding it with the preposition “with.”

	Галоўнай іх сілай былі гранаты.			Their main weapon was grenades.
	Мы давай паедзем машінай.			Let’s take the car.
	Ты павінна валодаць гэтай мовай			You should have such control of this
		так, каб чулася як удома				language that you feel at home
		між людзей, якія					among people, who speak 
		па-беларуску гавораць.				Belarusian.
	
25.2		Prepositions with the instrumental case

	The following prepositions can be followed by the instrumental case. The meaning of each preposition in that context is given.

з		with
			Я пайшоў з імі.			I went with them.

за		behind
			Ідзі за мною.				Walk behind me.
	
між		between
			Дарога ўецца між палямі.		The road winds between fields.

над		over
			Над лесам навісла хмара.		A stormcloud hung over the forest.
		exceeding
			Мароз над усімі маразамі.		A frost exceeding all frosts.

пад		beneath
			Жыта залоціцца пад сонцам.	The rye ripened beneath the sun.
		under
			Быць пад строгай аховай.		To be under heavy guard.

паміж		between
			Паміж небам і зямлёю.		Between heaven and earth.

перад		in front of
			Не адступаць перад			Do not retreat in the face of difficulty.
				цяжкасцямі.
		 before
			Перад тым, трэба падумаць.	Before that, one must think.
		compared to
			Яны нішто перад ім.			They are nothing compared to him.

Chapter 26: The Prepositional Case

26.1		Use of the prepositional case

	This case is only used when following prepositions, hence the name. The following prepositions can be followed by the prepositional case. The meaning of each preposition in that context is given.

аб		about
			Гаварылі аб усім.			We spoke of everything.

на		on
			Кніга ляжыць на стале.		The book lies on the table.
		in
			На вайне куды болей		In war, such strength is
				патрэбна такая вось			needed much more.
				дужасць.
	
па		[used to denote movement all over or around something]
			Ехаць на санях па лёдзе.		To ride a sleigh over the ice.
		among
			Чуткі хадзілі па вёсках.		The rumors circulated among the
									villages.
		after
			Па абедзе.				After dinner.

	For the usages of па given below, the prepositional case can only be used if the object is plural. If it is singular, the dative case must be used, see Section 24.2 for examples.

	Пайшлі па ягоных слядах.				They followed in his steps.
	Снаборніцтва па лыжах.				Skiing competition.

пры		near
			Ён быў пры смерці.			He was near death.
		with
			Я застаўся пры сваёй думцы.	I was left with my opinion.

у		in
			Стаіць у пакоі.			He is standing in the room.

Chapter 27: Prepositional Oddities

27.1		Preposition variation

	The prepositions listed below have a special form when preceding certain words.

normal form		auxiliary form

аб			аба			When preceding the words мне, ўсім,and ўсіх.
к			ка			When preceding the word мне.
пад			пада			When preceding the word мной.
над			нада			When preceding the word мной.
перад			перада		When preceding the word мной.
у			ва			When preceding any word beginning with ў.
у			ў			Otherwise, if it follows a word ending in a vowel.
з			са			When preceding a word whose first letter is 
either ж, з, м, с, or ш, and whose second letter is a consonant

27.2		Pronouns following prepositions

	A characteristic unique to Belarusian of all the Slavic languages, a prosthetic н is not added to the pronouns ён, яно, яна, and яны when following a preposition.

	аб ім		about it
	да яго		to him
	з ёй		with her
	над імі		over them

27.3		Prepositional assimilation

	Certain prepositions and particles are assimilated into the words that follow them. They and the words in front of them are pronounced as one word. For purposes of pronunciation, all spelling rules should be applied to the preposition as if it were part of the next word, for example, if the following word begins with a palatized consonant, the ending of the preposition is pronounced palatized. Classical orthography writes the prepositions with the rules applied, while Modern orthography does not. Pronunciation of prepositions reflects the application of the spelling rules, regardless of which orthography is used.

	Classical			Modern

Устаў зь зямлі.		Устаў з зямлі.			I got up from the ground.
Як сарока бязь хваста.	Як сарока без хваста.		Like a magpie without a tail.

27.3		Prepositions with adverbs

	Sometimes prepositions can be followed by an adverb, which is not declined.

	Які прагноз на сёння?			What is the forecast for today?
	Нам трэба купіць ежу на заўтра.		We need to buy food for tomorrow.

Chapter 28: Conditional Sentences

28.1		Real conditional sentences

	Conditional sentences consist of two clauses, a condition, and the result of that condition. If the result is certain, given the condition, then the sentence is formed thus; the first clause begins with калі and states the condition. The second clause can optionally begin with the word дык, and then states the result.

	Калі ён здаровы, дык ён можа		If he is healthy, then he can work.
		працаваць.
	Калі ён ведаў, ён не ішоў.			If he knew, then he did not go.
	
28.2		Hypothetical conditional sentences

	If the result is uncertain, then the particle бы (б when preceded by a vowel) must be inserted into the result clause and any indicative verb must be changed to the past tense. If there is speculation involved, then the condition clause can also have бы added to it and the verb changed to the past tense.
	
	Калі ён здаровы, ён мог бы			If he is healthy, he might be able to work.
		працаваць.
	Калі б ён быў здаровы, то мог бы		If he were healthy, then he might be
		працаваць.					able to work.
	Калі ён ведаў, ён не пайшоў бы.		If he knew, he might not have gone.
	Калі б ён ведаў, то не пайшоў бы.		If he had not known, he might not have
								gone.

Chapter 29: Adverbs

29.1		Adverbs formed from adjectives

	Most adverbs are formed by removing the final –ы or –і from the adjective and adding -а to the ending. If the stress in the adjective falls on the last or next to the last syllable, it often shifts to the first syllable for the adverb.

	блізкі			close			блізка			closely
	важны			important		важна			importantly
	вясёлы		happy			весела			happily
	дакладны		precise			дакладна		precisely
	ранні			early			ранна			early
	ціхі			quiet			ціха			quietly

29.2		Compound adverbs

	These adverbs are formed by adding ‘па-‘ to the front of the adjective. When certain possessive adjectives are formed from animate nouns, they can be made into adverbs indicating similarity of behavior to the animate noun.

	дзіцячы		child’s			па-дзіцячы		childishly
	воўчы			wolf’s			па-воўчы		like a wolf

	Ordinal numbers form adverbs by declining the adjective for the nominative neuter case and adding the prefix.

	першы			first			па-першае		firstly
	другі			second			па-другое		secondly
	трэці			third			па-трэцяе		thirdly

	Some adjectives, especially ones denoting language or nationality, form an adverb by appending the prefix and changing the final -і to an -у.

	беларускі		Belarusian		па-беларуску		in Belarusian
	брацкі			brother’s		па-брацку		like a brother
	англійскі		English			па-англійску		in English

29.3		The adverbs болей, меней, больш and менш

	The adverbs болей and больш mean more, and меней and меньш mean less. See Section 6.4 for more on the usage of these adverbs.

	Сястры ён болей не ўбачыць.		He will not see his sister anymore.
	Куды болей за іх баяўся Ізяслаў		Izyaslau feared his own people much
		свайго народа.				more than them.
	У жыцці, аднак, усё сталася болей		In life, however, everything became more
		складана і меней шчасліва.			complicated and less happy.

	Кожны з якіх збіў больш за 100		Each of which destroyed more than 100
		нашых самалётаў.				of our planes.
	Я памкнуўся бліжэй, і Франі			I strove closer, and I did not see Franya
		больш не пабачыў.				any more.
	Яна, тым не менш, таіла ў сабе		She nevertheless concealed within herself
		неразгаданую загадку.			an unsolved riddle.
	Ён пачаў менш успамінаць былое.		He started to remember the past less.

29.4		Comparative and superlative adverbs

	There are two ways to form the comparative and two ways to form the superlative form of an adverb. The short comparative form is the more common of the two. It is identical to the short comparative adjective. Section 6.1 covers its formation thoroughly. Not all adverbs have a short comparative form, but all adverbs can also form a comparative by preceding the adverb with болей or больш.

	На вайне куды болей патрэбна		In war, such strength is much more necessary.
		такая вось дужасць.
	Рабілася ўсё болей сцюдзёна на		It became much colder at this windy forest-edge.
		гэтым ветраным узлеску.
	«Размова пра паходы скочана»		“All talk of the march is finished” he said
		сказаў больш лагодна			more good-naturedly.
	Гэта ідэя будзе больш выгадна.		This idea will be more profitable.

	There are two ways of forming the superlative adverb. The first is to precede the adverb with найбольш, most. The second way is to follow the adverb by the phrase за ўсё or за ўсіх.

	Нас маглі накіраваць куды заўгодна, 	They could place us wherever is
		але найбольш верагодна – у		convenient, but most likely, it will
		стралковы батальён.				be into a rifle battalion.
	Але найбольш зацята я не хацеў		But most stubbornly, I did not want to
		стаць кампазітарам.				become a composer.

	Але болей за ўсё яму дакучала		But mostly, he felt cravings of hunger.
		адчуванне голаду.
	Болей за ўсё верагодна, што ён		It was most likely that he felt the
		адчуў непажаданую				unwanted perspective of loneliness.
		пэрспэктыву адзіноты.

29.5		Miscellaneous adverbs

	There are many important adverbs that are not derived from adjectives. A very few of them are listed here.

		дзе		where				куды		to where
		тут		here				сюды		to here
		там		there				туды		to there
		нідзе		nowhere			нікуды		not to anywhere
		усюды		everywhere
								адкуль		from where
		дома		at home			адсюль	from here
		дадому	to home			адтуль		from there
								ніадкуль	not from anywhere
		калі		when
		цяпер		now				сёння		today
		зараз		immediately			заўтра		tomorrow
		тады		then				учора		yesterday
		потым		after that
		ніколі		never				вельмі		very
		заўсёды	always				зноў		again
								ледзь		barely
		як		how				надта		significantly
		так		so/that way			крыху		a little
		неяк		some way			шмат		a lot	
		ніяк		no way				многа		much/many

Chapter 30: Conjunctions and Particles

30.1		Coordinating conjunctions

	Coordinating conjunctions join two different phrases into one sentence.
	
і		and
			Ён прыехаў і адразу пачаў		He arrived and immediately began to work.
				працаваць.
		both
			Мне падабаюцца і клубніца		I like both strawberries and raspberries.
				і маліна.

а		and (contrasting)
			Ты школьнік, а ён студэнт.		You are in grade school, and he is in college.				but
			Ён паехаў, а я засталася.		He went, but I stayed behind.

аднак		although
			Гэта не зусім лагічна, аднак		This was not completely logical,
				значна больш нелагічна		although his next action was
				быў яго наступны			much more illogical.
				ўчынак.

але		but
			Галоўнай іх сілай былі		Their main weapon was grenades,
				гранаты, але кідаць іх		but it was still a long way
				было яшчэ далёка.			to throw them.

ды		and
			Каму-ж, калі не ім, па фэстах	Who, if not they, should wander
				валачыцца, ды з			around the festival and make
				бяднейшых пакепліваць?		fun of poor people?
		but
			Людзі паміралі, ды не спынялі	People died, but they did not stop
				барацьбы.				the fighting.

потым	then
			Ліць пот за іншых в ўласнай		To pour sweat for others in their	
				патрэбе, потым ад 			own need, then be prepared
голаду змерці гатовы.		to die from hunger.

таксама	also
			Дзеці працавалі таксама як і	The children worked also, just like
				дарослыя.				the adults.

то		both
			Гэта ідзе то ўверх, то ўніз.		It goes both up and down.
		
		See Chapter 28 for examples of то as a conditional conjunction.

ці		or
			Ці рана, ці позна, ці зусім не	Either sooner, or later, or he will not
				прыйдзе.				come at all.

30.2		Subordinating conjunctions

	Subordinating conjunctions join a clause to another clause, on which it depends.

бо		because
			Хадзем шпарчэй, бо			Let’s walk faster, because we are
				спознімся.				going to be late.

каб		so that
			Ён хоча, каб яго сын быў		He wants his son to be a doctor.
				лекарам.

30.3		Predicates

	When these are used, the sentence will not have a noun in the nominative case as a subject. Often they are used in combination with the dative case.

можна		one may
			Гэта можна зрабіць за два дні.	This can get done in two days.

нельга		one must not
			Нельга хадзіць па газонах.		No walking on the grass.
		one cannot
			Чалавеку нельга жыць без		Man cannot live without love. 
				любові.

няма		there is none
			У мяне няма грошай.			I do not have any money.

трэба		it is necessary
			На кожны стрэл трэба было		For each shot, they needed to get
				браць дазвол камадзіра		the commander’s permission.

шкада		it is sad
			Шкада, што тое да мяне		It is too bad that it still has not
				яшчэ не дайшло.			come to me.

30.4		Suffixes

	There are suffixes that can be attached to any interrogative pronoun or adverb. Doing this is equivalent to appending “some” to the beginning of an interrogative 
pronoun or adverb in English.

-сьці

	Ён яшчэ дадаў пра злачыннасць			He again thought about the crimes of that
		тае вайны, за якую калісьці				war, for which sometime, someone
		прыйдзецца некаму адказваць.			would have to answer.

-небудзь

	Што-небудзь тлумачыць я не меў сілы.		This was something that I did not have the										strength to explain.
	Ёсць які-небудзь стары? Што да			Is there someone who’s old? That lived
		вайны тут жыў?					here before the war?

-колечы

	Ён пашукаў чаго-колечы з’есці.			He looked for something to eat.

30.5		Other particles

аж		[indicates a limit or extremeness]
			Гналі нас аж да Дунаю.		They pursued us all the way to Duna.
			Навокал зрабілася аж		All around it became way too quiet.
				занадта ціхмана.

але		yes
			Але, я вас разумею.			Yes, I understand you.

абы		if only
			Абы яна пазваніла...			If only she would call...
		just
			Хачу забіць яго, абы ціха		I want to kill him, just so it would
				было.					be quiet.

жа		[adds emphasis]
			Ён жа вярнуўся тайком, без		He returned secretly, without permission.
				дазволу.

так		yes
			Так, але... У чым я магу вам		Yes, but... How can I help you?
				памагчы?
		so
			Так думаў я.				I thought so.
		so [adds emphasis]
			Бо іх ужо так шмат			Because there is already so many
				на тым баку.				of them on that side.

ці		[indicates question]
			Ці размаўляеш па-беларуску?	Do you speak Belarusian?

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mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical
connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal,
commercial, philosophical, ethical or political position regarding
them.

The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles
are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice
that says that the Document is released under this License. If a
section does not fit the above definition of Secondary then it is not
allowed to be designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero
Invariant Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant
Sections then there are none.

The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed,
as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that
the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may
be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.

A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable copy,
represented in a format whose specification is available to the
general public, that is suitable for revising the document
straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of
pixels) generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available
drawing editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or
for automatic translation to a variety of formats suitable for input
to text formatters. A copy made in an otherwise Transparent file
format whose markup, or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart
or discourage subsequent modification by readers is not Transparent.
An image format is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount
of text. A copy that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque".

Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML
or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standard-conforming simple
HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human modification. Examples of
transparent image formats include PNG, XCF and JPG. Opaque formats
include proprietary formats that can be read and edited only by
proprietary word processors, SGML or XML for which the DTD and/or
processing tools are not generally available, and the
machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word
processors for output purposes only.

The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself,
plus such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material
this License requires to appear in the title page. For works in
formats which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means
the text near the most prominent appearance of the work's title,
preceding the beginning of the body of the text.

A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document whose
title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses following
text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ stands for a
specific section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements",
"Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title"
of such a section when you modify the Document means that it remains a
section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition.

The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice which
states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty
Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this
License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other
implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has
no effect on the meaning of this License.

2. VERBATIM COPYING

You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no other
conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use
technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further
copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept
compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough
number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.

You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
you may publicly display copies.

3. COPYING IN QUANTITY

If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover
Texts: Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on
the back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify
you as the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present
the full title with all words of the title equally prominent and
visible. You may add other material on the covers in addition.
Copying with changes limited to the covers, as long as they preserve
the title of the Document and satisfy these conditions, can be treated
as verbatim copying in other respects.

If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to fit
legibly, you should put the first ones listed (as many as fit
reasonably) on the actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent
pages.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering
more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent
copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque copy
a computer-network location from which the general network-using
public has access to download using public-standard network protocols
a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added material.
If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps,
when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity, to ensure
that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the stated
location until at least one year after the last time you distribute an
Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to give
them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the Document.

4. MODIFICATIONS

You may copy and distribute a Modified Version of the Document under
the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
the Modified Version under precisely this License, with the Modified
Version filling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
and modification of the Modified Version to whoever possesses a copy
of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modified Version:

A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
  from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions
  (which should, if there were any, be listed in the History section
  of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version
  if the original publisher of that version gives permission.
B. List on the Title Page, as authors, one or more persons or entities
  responsible for authorship of the modifications in the Modified
  Version, together with at least five of the principal authors of the
  Document (all of its principal authors, if it has fewer than five),
  unless they release you from this requirement.
C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
  Modified Version, as the publisher.
D. Preserve all the copyright notices of the Document.
E. Add an appropriate copyright notice for your modifications
  adjacent to the other copyright notices.
F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice
  giving the public permission to use the Modified Version under the
  terms of this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below.
G. Preserve in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections
  and required Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice.
H. Include an unaltered copy of this License.
I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add
  to it an item stating at least the title, year, new authors, and
  publisher of the Modified Version as given on the Title Page. If
  there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one
  stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the Document as
  given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the Modified
  Version as stated in the previous sentence.
J. Preserve the network location, if any, given in the Document for
  public access to a Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise
  the network locations given in the Document for previous versions
  it was based on. These may be placed in the "History" section.
  You may omit a network location for a work that was published at
  least four years before the Document itself, or if the original
  publisher of the version it refers to gives permission.
K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements" or "Dedications",
  Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in the section all
  the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements
  and/or dedications given therein.
L. Preserve all the Invariant Sections of the Document,
  unaltered in their text and in their titles. Section numbers
  or the equivalent are not considered part of the section titles.
M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section
  may not be included in the Modified Version.
N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements"
  or to conflict in title with any Invariant Section.
O. Preserve any Warranty Disclaimers.

If the Modified Version includes new front-matter sections or
appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material
copied from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all
of these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the
list of Invariant Sections in the Modified Version's license notice.
These titles must be distinct from any other section titles.

You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains
nothing but endorsements of your Modified Version by various
parties--for example, statements of peer review or that the text has
been approved by an organization as the authoritative definition of a
standard.

You may add a passage of up to five words as a Front-Cover Text, and a
passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end of the list
of Cover Texts in the Modified Version. Only one passage of
Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by (or
through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document already
includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by you or
by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on behalf of,
you may not add another; but you may replace the old one, on explicit
permission from the previous publisher that added the old one.

The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License
give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or
imply endorsement of any Modified Version.

5. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

You may combine the Document with other documents released under this
License, under the terms defined in section 4 above for modified
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the
Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodified, and
list them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its
license notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.

The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name but
different contents, make the title of each such section unique by
adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original
author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of
Invariant Sections in the license notice of the combined work.

In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History"
in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled
"History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements",
and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections
Entitled "Endorsements".

6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents
released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this
License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in
the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for
verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.

You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute
it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this
License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all
other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.

7. AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS

A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright
resulting from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights
of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit.
When the Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not
apply to the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves
derivative works of the Document.

If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these
copies of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of
the entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on
covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the
electronic equivalent of covers if the Document is in electronic form.
Otherwise they must appear on printed covers that bracket the whole
aggregate.

8. TRANSLATION

Translation is considered a kind of modification, so you may
distribute translations of the Document under the terms of section 4.
Replacing Invariant Sections with translations requires special
permission from their copyright holders, but you may include
translations of some or all Invariant Sections in addition to the
original versions of these Invariant Sections. You may include a
translation of this License, and all the license notices in the
Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also include
the original English version of this License and the original versions
of those notices and disclaimers. In case of a disagreement between
the translation and the original version of this License or a notice
or disclaimer, the original version will prevail.

If a section in the Document is Entitled "Acknowledgements",
"Dedications", or "History", the requirement (section 4) to Preserve
its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual
title.

9. TERMINATION

You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document except
as expressly provided for under this License. Any other attempt to
copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Document is void, and will
automatically terminate your rights under this License. However,
parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under this
License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
parties remain in full compliance.

10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions
of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See
http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number.
If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this
License "or any later version" applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or
of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the
Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version
number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not
as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and
license notices just after the title page:

  Copyright (c) YEAR YOUR NAME.
  Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
  under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
  or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
  with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.
  A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU
  Free Documentation License".

If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover Texts,
replace the "with...Texts." line with this:

  with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with the
  Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts being LIST.

If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.

If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of
free software license, such as the GNU General Public License,
to permit their use in free software.